AFRICA AND EXTERNAL WORLD

 TOPIC 3:

AFRICA AND EXTERNAL WORLD

EARLY CONTACTS WITH MIDDLE EAST AND FAR EAST

Early contact was a period when East Africa began to interact with people from Middle East and Far East as early as 200 BC. 

These contacts were mostly developed through commercial activities. The early visitors were Persians, Syrians, Indians, Chinese, Lebanese, Burma and Arabians. The visitors managed to travel to the coast of East Africa through the use of Sea Vessels with the help of monsoon winds. 

Trade contacts between East African coast and the Far and Middle East intensified between 8th and 10th Century when many traders from China, Indonesia, India, and Arab came to trade to African countries.

Evidences of existence of the trade

1. Archaeological findings such as China porcelains, coins, and foreigners tombs in areas like KilwaKisiwani and Old Bagamoyo.

2. Written documents; example the greek guide book to the Indian Ocean ( The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea). Periplus means- a guide book, while Erythrean sea means- Indian Ocean. The book guide new traders to East African coastline.

Factors that enabled the contact

1. Discovery of compass direction. With this device, the sailors sailed long distance without getting lost easily.

2. Monsoon winds. The North-east monsoon winds carried ships from Asia to east Africa from November to April while the South-west monsoon wind carried them back to Asia between may and october.

3. Advancement in maritime technology. The use of sea vessels known as dhows made it easier for sea transport to and from Africa.

4. Security. The traders prepared their voyage with escort of armed and trained men to safeguard their commodities. Also the East African societies were not aggresive ensuring existence of peace.

MOTIVES/AIMS OF THE CONTACTS BETWEEN AFRICA, MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

1. SOCIAL MOTIVES

(i) Spreading of Islamic religion. Islam religion began in the Middle East in 7th AD from there it spread to many parts of Asia. In addition, Arabs wanted to spread their religion to new parts of the world including Africa.

(ii) Seeking refuge. Some visitors who came to Africa experienced religious and political persecution in their countries so they came in search of peacefully place to settle.

(iii) Establishment of settlement. some visitors decided to live permanently in Africa especially along the coast and they built permanent stone houses in the Arabic style.

2. ECONOMIC MOTIVES

(i) Commercial exploration. some of the early visitors came to explore Africa and assess its resources. They wanted to know the climatic conditions, mineral resources, wildlife and economic activities found on the African continent. They planned to exploit resources available.

(ii) Trade. Many of the early visitors came to take valuable commodities from Africa like ivory, slves and gold in exchange with beads, porcelain and swords to mention few.

COMMODITIES EXCHANGED

Beaker, Iron pans, swords, glass ware, daggers, beads, ornaments, Porcelains, bowl, plates, silk, clothes, Pots, bowls, metal spears, Iron pans, Stone pots and jars were brought to Africa from countries like Arabia, China, Persia, India, Syria and Burma.

In return they took; Ivory, Gold, Slaves, tortoise shells, Rhino horns, copper, iron and coconut oil.

EFFECTS OF THE EARLY CONTACTS BETWEEN AFRICA AND MIDDLE AND FAR EAST

A: POSITIVE SOCIAL EFFECTS

(i) The rise of coastal city States, these states included Mogadishu, Zanzibar, Mombasa, Kilwa and Sofala.They were once small unimportant coastal villages but they grew into cities due to settlement by foreigners.

(ii) Development of Swahili language, 

Swahili language and culture developed as a result of intermarriage between the people of East Africa Coast towns. Swahili language consists of roughly 65% of Bantu words, 30% of Arabic words and other few Indian words. It provided a common language (Lingua-franca) for the African and Arabs on East Africa coast to use in trade.

(iii) Spread of Islam. Arabs and Persians who settled along the Coast of East Africa spread Islam along the coastline of East Africa. It also extended into the interior. Arabs built Mosques wherever they settled. This was alongside with the introduction of Islamic laws in order to maintain justice and order and these laws were taken from the Muslim Holy book (Quran) and they were administered by the Kadhi (Judge).

(iv) New Architectural designs were introduced. The Coastal city-states adopted new style of building, For example, the Persian traders who settled along the coast introduced building using stone style similar to that found in Persia. Evidence of buildings are seen in Historical sites such as ruins of KilwaKisiwani and Zanzibar.

(v) Introduction of new styles of dressing. the people of Africa adopted new style of dressing from the foreigners. Examples those who converted and adopted the Islamic mode of dressing. This included the bauibui (a long black robe for women), kanzu (a long white robe for men), vails for women and barghashia (a small cap) for men.

(vi) Intermarriage. The foreigner intermarried with Africans, creating a new race of half-castes/mullatoes.

NEGATIVE SOCIAL EFFECTS

(vii) Cultural interference. This was experienced though interacting with foreigners and adopted their customs. Some Africans abandoned their traditional religion, language, mode of dressing and food. This interfered African ways of life.

(viii) Warfare and depopulation. Contacts brought slave trade between African and Arabs. The demand of slaves caused warfare between African communities. The wars caused insecurity, loss of lives and depopulation  in many parts of east Africa.

(ix) Social stratification. Through trading with foreigners, some Africans acquired great wealth. This led to the emergence of super rich class of people among the Africans. These people exercised a lot of power and influence in the community. As result there was great stratification, with a big difference between the haves and have not.

B: POSITIVE ECONOMIC EFFECTS

(i) Introduction of new crops. New crops such as rice, wheat, cloves, sugarcane and orange were introduced to the African continent from the Middle East and Far East. These crops improved the diet of Africans. Some grew so well that many people adopted them as their favourite foods. For example, rice is a favourite food among many people along the Coast of East Africa.

(ii) Exposure of African continent to the external world. African contacts with the Middle and Far East exposed this continent to the rest of the World. Visitors who came to Africa also travelled to other parts of the world. Africa became involved in the world economy, African products such as Ivory, Gold, Leopard skin and copper became popular and were sold all over the World and in turn African got access to products from outside the world.

(iii) Introduction of money economy, Foreigners introduced the use of currency in trade. This was more convenient and replaced barter trade as the method of exchange. Coins begun to be minted and used in the East African city-states.

(iv) Introduction of new technology. People from the Far East and Middle East brought new technology to Africa. For example, they introduced advanced navigation techniques and the art of keeping records by writing. These things helped African along the Indian Ocean shoreline to travel further. Fishermen could also sail into deeper and get larger catches. Dhows are still used in some fishing communities to date.

NEGATIVE ECONOMIC EFFECTS

(v) Unequal Exchange. Traders from the Far and Middle East traded with African using goods with unequal values. They took goods of high value such as slaves, gold, ivory and animal skin in exchange for low value items such as beads, cowrie shells and colored clothes. These commodities from Africa were then sold at great profits in foreign markets.

(vi) Slave Trade. Oman Arabs introduced slave trade to East Africa. Sultan Seyyid Said introduced clove plantations in Zanzibar and then got slaves to work in them. In additional they sold slaves to Europeans who began sugar plantations in Maurtius and Re union Islands.

(vii) Exploitation of African resources. Due to high demand of African commodities in outside world African resources were greatly exploited. For example, large number of elephants and rhinoceros were killed for their horns and many strong young people were captured and sold as slaves. Therefore, this contributed to reduction of African resources.

(viii) Decline of Local industries. The introduction of foreign goods led to the decline of African local industries. Due to the availability of many varieties of clothes, utensils and other tools from abroad with cheap price, few people bought local products. Eventually, local production also declined.

THE CONTACT BETWEEN AFRICA AND EUROPE

THE COMING OF PORTUGUESE

The Portuguese became interested in controlling the Indian Ocean trade in the 15th century due to the commercial capitalism in Europe. At the time, there was great demand for gold, silver silk and spices especially among the kings and wealthy, people. Gold and silver (bullions) were used to make coins and expensive ornaments.

At that time Portugal was a poor country with a small population, it was greatly overshadowed by its larger neighbor Spain. At the beginning of 15th century Portugal had begun to exceed in one area; Navigation. Portugal Prince,  Henry the navigator set up a navigation school in the country and encouraged exploration voyages. By sailing to Africa, the Portuguese hoped to control trade and enrich the country.

In the 1470s The Portuguese landed on the Gold coast of West Africa. They built a port which they called Elmina. From this fort they controlled the gold trade between Africa and Europe.

In 1487,Bartholomew Diaz, a Portuguese explorer reached the Southern cape of Africa and called it the Cape of Good Hope. On 1st March 1498, Vasco da Gama reached Malindi on the East African Coast. The same year he arrived in Calicut, India and became the first European to sail directly from Europe to India.

MOTIVES/AIMS OF THE CONTACT BETWEEN AFRICA AND THE PORTUGUESE

A: ECONOMIC MOTIVES

(i) Finding sea route to India. In the 15th century, the Ottoman Turks had occupied a large part of the Middle East, blocking the overland trade route between India and Europe. Therefore, Europeans could not get much valued silk, spices and Gold from Asia. The Portuguese came to Africa as they attempted to find a sea route through which they could trade with India.

(ii) Trade.Te Portuguese wanted to trade with Africans and replace the Arab middlemen who took African goods to Europe. Portuguese traders got valuable items such as ivory, gold and gum from Africa and sold them profitably in Europe. In exchange, they brought European cloth, copper and brass items to the Africans. This trade helped to strengthen the Portuguese economy in the 15th century.

(iii) Creating Portuguese Trade Empire. Portugal wanted to dominate the trade between Asia, Africa and Europe and creating a trading empire. To achieve this the Portuguese had to overcome the Arab traders who dominated the trade. In addition, it was necessary to prevent other European nations from colonizing the African coast because the other countries would interfere with Portuguese trading interests.

(iv) Exploiting of African resources. Portugal was a poor country, so Portuguese were in search of resources that could bring them wealth and recognition in Europe. Therefore, they established settlements and plantations on the Islands of Sao tome and Principe and they used African labor to grow sugar cane there. The produced products were exported to Europe and America.

(v) Establishment of strategic ports. Along the East African coast there were many natural harbors that could serve as stop over point for Portuguese ships. The sailors could rest and restock their supplies at those harbors. Portuguese built forts at some of those harbor in order to protect their trade from Arabs and other European competitors. For example, of such forts are Elmina Castle in Modern days Ghana and Fort Jesus in Mombasa Kenya.

B: SOCIAL MOTIVES

(i) Adventure. Some Portuguese explorers visited Africa for leisure. Through their advanced ships building and Navigation skills, enabled them to travel everywhere in search of new land to explore. These voyages were supported by the leader in Portugal especially Prince Henry The navigator.

(ii) Spreading Christianity. The Portuguese felt that it was their duty to spread the Christian faith and reduce the influence of Islam along the coast of Africa.

(iii) Search for the King Prester John. There was a rumors that there was a Christian King named Prester John whose Kingdom was believed to be somewhere around Ethiopia in North East Africa. The Portuguese wanted to find this King and form alliance with him against the Muslim.

By 15th C Portuguese succeeded to establish their rule in East Africa. After that the Portuguese built the Fort Jesus in Mombasa in 1593 to strengthen their military power thus establishing the effective control over the East Africa coastal areas

THE IMPACTS OF PORTUGUESE INVASION IN AFRICA

THE ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF PORTUGUESE

(a) Introduction of new crops especially cash crops in Africa likeb Sugarcane, yellow maize, cassava, rice, pineapples and potatoes.

(b) Decline of trade; the trade between East Africa, Far East and Middle East was interrupted by the Portuguese.

(c) Change of major trade routes. The trade route changed from Asia to Europe. Commodities were no longer being taken to Asia but Europe.

(d) Exposed Africa to the external world. African goods were now known to outside world hence they became curious of its origin.

(e) They built several forts, example; Fort Jesus in 1593 in Mombasa, Fort at Kilwa and Elmina castle in Ghana.

(f) They acted as the introducers of new arts to the indigenous of Africa continent.

SOCIAL IMPACTS OF PORTUGUESE

(a) Decline of coastal city states like kilwa because of attacks which involved burning of buildings.

(b) Growth of Swahili language. New words were coined from Portuguese language exampleli Mvinyo from word Vincho,  leso and Meza

(c) Insecurity and loss of manpower. Constant attacks and brutality of the portuese made people to live in fear of losing their lives and properties.

THE REASONS FOR THE COLLAPSE OF PORTUGUESE RULE.

1) They suffered from tropical disease like malaria and small pox which killed many of their officials.

2) The climate conditions of East African coast were hot and unhealthy for the Portuguese.

3) Social, culture and religion differences like Muslim against Christians.

4) Decline of trade due to Portuguese heavy taxes and restrictions. This killed the trade because there was no good profit something which made traders quit.

5) Harsh treatments and punishment practiced by Portuguese in their leadership. They were so brutal; harassing and raping Africans welcomed resistance.

The coastal swahili and the Arabs with the help from Ali Bey from Ottoman Empire fought constantly with portuguese at their stronghold ' Fort Jesus'  in Mombasa until they captured it in 1698 when portuguese surrendered. The fall of Fort Jesus marked the end of Portuguese rule in East Africa. Until 1700 portuguese rule had completely ended.

THE DUTCH SETTLEMENT AT THE CAPE

SOUTH AFRICA BEFORE THE COMING OF EUROPEANS

The Earliest Inhabitants of South Africa were The San (Bushmen) and the Khoikhoi then followed by Bantu people who inhabited South Africa.

THE SAN: The San people were short and had light brown skin. They had click sound in their language. They lived in highland areas of South Africa. Their main economic Activities were hunting and gathering. They had permanent settlement and they lived in caves.

KHOIKHOI: The Khoikhoi resemble the San but they are taller. Khoikhoi means men of men in their language. The San group helped the Khoikhoi to graze their animals. The frequent contact between San and Khoikhoi resulted to a combined name of Khoisan.

THE BANTU: They  made up the largest group and they were the early inhabitants of South Africa. They include the Iswana, Venda, Gueza, Zulu, Ndebele, Swazi, Shona, Xhosa and Ngoni. They lived a settled life and grew crops such as maize, beans and pumpkins. They used iron tolls and produced enough food which encouraged population growth. The surplus encouraged trade between the communities.

THE DUTCH SETTLEMENT AT THE CAPE

The Dutch or Boers came from Holland (Netherland) and firstly settled at the cape in Table Bay in April 1652 under the leadership of Jan Van Riebeek.

Dutch farmers called themselves - BOERS. When they settled at the cape they called themselves by the name of Afrikaners that meant the whites of Africa who developed language known as Afrikaans.

Dutch had a company known as United Dutch East India company (UDEIC). The company had trade with India and other Arabs in Asia. At the cape, they grew vegetables, fruits and kept animals such as cattle.They had barter trade with Khoikhoi exchanging tobacco and alcohol for the cattle.

REASONS FOR DUTCH SETTLEMENT AT THE CAPE

1.The cape was a good place where ships could stop to be refueled.

2.  The cape had a good climate to support settlement of the whites. (Temperate and cool climate).

3.  The Dutch wanted to produce vegetable and fruits for the ships which sailed to India.

4. The cape could provide fresh water for the sailors.

5. The cape could be a base of projecting their ships on Atlantic and Indian Ocean.

6. The cape was a center for caring sick people.

THE EFFECTS/IMPACTS OF THE DUTCH SETTLEMENT AT THE CAPE

(i) Enslavement of African. Boers established large plantations, so they needed labors to work to their fields so African were forced to provide their labor.

(ii) Displacement of the African communities. The Dutch displaced the native Africans from the fertile areas and forced them to move into unproductive areas. Also they took their livestock by force.

(iii) Occurrence of social segregation. The Dutch thought that they are superior so they mistreated and exploited the Africans someting that laid the foundation for the Apartheid.

(iv) Expansion of European settlements. Dutch established settlement at the cape in 1685 and their families increased to 150 families.

(v) Introduction of new culture, The Boers introduced the Dutch culture to South Africa that involved their way of life which was totally different from that of African.

(vi) Political structure of the Khoikhoi was destroyed.

(vii) Dutch raided cattle from the Khoikhoi.

AFRICAN REACTIONS TO THE DUTCH SETTLEMENT

THE SAN: They resisted Dutch settlement by raiding the Boers cattles. The Boers took revenge by the hunting down the San in order to wipe them out so many san people were killed.

THE KHOIKHOI: The Boers occupied the traditional Khoikhoi grazing land so many Khoikhoi were enslaved and forced to work on Boers farms in 1659. The Khoikhoi declared war on the Dutch famers and in the the war, hundreds of cattle and sheep died.

THE BANTU: Bantu groups included the Zulu, Ndebele, Swazi, Ngoni, Tambu and Xhosa communities. They cultivated variety of crops such as sugarcane, melons, maize and beans. The level of production they had reached enabled them to accumulate surplus and trade began to be conducted among them. The Boers got the Great Fish River, they encountered the Xhosa who lived around that region. The Boers fought the major wars against the Xhosa. The Xhosa called these war Wars of possession but the Boers called them 

Kaffir wars.

THE COMING OF THE BRITISH

The British occupied South Africa in 1795 when they attacked and defeated the boers at the cape.

Effects of British occupation of the cape

1. Abolition of slavery which had been introduced by the Boers. The Boers earlier used khoikhoi as slaves in their fsrms.

2. Introduction of English language as the official medium of communication that had to be spoken by all people including the dutch.

3. Land allienation. Just like the Boers, the British continued to robb the fertile land from khoikhoi.

4. Importation of manufactured goods which changed the consumption patterns of the khoikhoi.

5. Introduction of Circuit courts for settling disputes among the Dutch and Khoikhoi.

AFRICAN REACTION TO EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS.

THE KAFFIR WARS OR WARS OF DISPOSSESSION.

These were series of wars carried out by the Xhosa from 1779 against Boers  at the great fish river.

The first three wars were in 1779, 1789 and 1803.

The fourth (known as Ndhalambi) happened in 1812

The fifth (known as Makanda) in 1819.

The sixth in 1834.

The seventh in 1846

The 8th (Malenjin  1850 1853)

The last resistance by the Xhosa (Mlakaza was an advisor to one of the Xhosa).

The Battle of Vegkop of 19th October 1836.

Ndebele under Mzilikazi fought against the Boers in the Orange Free states.

The Battle of the Blood River on 11th February, 1837.

ZULU UNDER Dingane fought against Boer settlement in natal.

Anglo Zulu war. (War between British and Zulu)

Zulu under Cetshowayo fought strongly and defeated the British at the Battle of Isandhlwana.

But later the British suppressed the Zulu during the battle of Ulundi 4th July, 1879.

THE GREAT BOER TREK OR THE AFRIKANER EXODUS IN SOUTH AFRICA

This was the movement of Boers from the cape towards the interior of South Africa. The trek begun in 1835. 

They moved and settled in Natal in the Zulu areas while others settled in Transvaal and Orange Free States.

Reasons for Boer Trek

1. The need for land. Land at the cape could not sustain the population. Furthermore the Boers were farmers who needed land for cultivation and pasture. Therefore they moved to acquire more land.

2. Introduction of English as official medium of communication. Boers did not know English and disliked it because it was British culture.

3. Abolition of slavery by British at the cape in 1834. Boers had no any other reliable source of labour at the place so they moved to other areas in search for labour.

4. Introduction of circuit courts by the British. This raised the idea that Khoikhoi were to be treated equally before the law with the Boers. The Khoikhoi were now free to sue boers in these courts. Boers were dissatsified with the action and decided tovmove away.

5. Missionaries activities at the cape. They preached equality and humanity and also urged the British government to prevent Boers from mistreating the Khoikhoi. The boers hated the actions of missionaries hence they left.

EFFECTS OF THE AFRIKANER EXODUS

1. Loss of land. Africans continued to lose land to the whites; Natal, Transvaal and Orange Free State were taken by the Boers for settlement and agriculture.

2. Cattle confiscation. On their way they raided cattle and plundered wealth from Africans.

3. South Africa was devided into Rebublics of Transvaal, Orange Free State and Natal.

4. Conflicts. Africans fought the boers to defend their land and wealth.

5. Introduction of Apartheid. Boers were highly racists  who segregated black Africans in every way. This dehumanized Africans.

THE ANGLO-BOER WARS

These were wars between British and the Boers in Transvaal after the discovery of Diamond in 1867 at Kimberley and Gold at Witwatersrand in 1886.

They fought two wars; The first Anglo-Boer war in 1880-1881. The war was settled by the Pretoria convention of 1881. But some matters were left unsolved because Boers were not granted complete freedom resulting into another war.

The second Anglo-Boer war was fought from 1899-1902. This was because British were trying to protect Uitlanders ( The people of British origin who invested in mines at the areas of Boers). The war was  ended up by the signing of Vereeniging peace Treaty in may 1902 in Pretoria after four years of turmoil.

MINERAL REVOLUTION IN  SOUTH AFRICA.

This was the discovery of minerals mainly diamond at Kimberley in 1867 and gold at Witwatersrand in 1886. This discoveries revolutionized the economy of South Africa and changed it from subsistence economy to commercial and industrial economy.

Effects of mineral revolution in South Africa.

1. Establishment of heavy industries for extraction of minerals. There were also industries to process foods for the increasing population.

2. Expansion of Agriculture. Many people invested on agriculture in order to feed the traders and labourers in the mines.

3. The rise of migrant labour system. Many Africans  started to move from their villages to mining fields and others from their  home countries to South Africa to seek employment in the mines. Migrant labour were from neighbouring countries of Zimbabwe, Angola, Mozambique and Southern Tanganyika.

4. Formation of large mining companies example the De Beers Consolidated Mines Ltd founded by Cecil Rhodes to deal with mineral production.

5. Growth of export trade. Gold and diamond were now being exported to Europe in large quantities.

6. The rise of cities and towns such as Johhannesburg, Pretoria and Durban as a result of being trade centres of minerals.

7. Development of infrastructures such as the railway from Cape Town and Natal to Transvaal for export of minerals. Roads and harbours were constructed as well.

8. Loss of political independence among Africans. The whites invaded areas endowed with mineral deposits and areas favourable for their settlement leading to colonization.

9. Income inequality between whites and Africans. The whites became rich because of possessing the mineral deposits while Africans remained poor offering cheap labour to the mines.

MFECANE WARS IN SOUTHERN AFRICA

The word Mfecane originated from zulu word which means crushing. Mfecane was the period of wide spreading warfare, plundering, disturbances, destruction and migrations among the southern African tribes during the first half of nineteenth century. 

This was the period of serious upheavals among the Bantu-speaking groups in southern Africa, the period when emerging small chiefdoms were waging expansionism wars among themselves. This was in the high area which lies between the Drakensberg Mountains, Kalahari Desert and the Limpopo River. 

By the late eighteenth century, and early nineteenth century, the Ndwandwe, Mthethwa, and Ngwane were emerging as powerful kingdoms south of the Highveld. 

The powerful chiefdoms with chiefs ambitions to expand their possessions began the conquest and assimilation of neighboring groups. The all turmoil commenced around 1810s when Zwide of Ndwande  and Sobhuza of Ngwane fought over land along the Pongola River and Sobhuza was defeated after which he led his people further inland to the area that is known as Swaziland today. 

After defeating Sobhuza, Zwide came into conflict with Dingiswayo of Mthethwa over other resources like land and water. Both kingdoms became more centralized and militarized. 

The Zulu were still a small group among the Mthethwa by this time. The Ndwandwe appeared victorious again in 1818, and Dingiswayo was killed, and his forces scattered. Shaka who was previously a warrior in the Dingiswayos army, had already ascended as the chief of the Zulu under full support of Dingiswayo upon the death of Senzangakona his father in 1816. 

As the Mthethwa nation fell apart after Dingiswayo's death Shaka who became ambitious to create new strong kingdom, used the opportunity to defeat all the chiefdoms in the area. Zwide realized that Shaka could become a threat and decided to stop him, thus became the Shakas great enemy, but was defeated in 1818 by the Zulus superior strategy and disciplined army. 

In 1926, under Zwides successor Sikhunyani, they challenged the Zulu forces again and were completely destroyed. Nguni speaking people, the Ndebele and many other tribes not ready to be ruled by Shaka emigrated leading to the so called Ngoni Migration. 

Thus Zulu became very vast strong kingdom in southern Africa. This period between 1810s-1850s is what is known as the period of Mfecane.

CAUSES OR REASONS OF MFECANE

(i) Population pressure. Zulu land is part of the Eastern corridor of South Africa between the Drakensburg Mountains and the Indian Ocean. Due to the favorable climate and absence of diseases such as malaria, its population tended to increase rapidly. As the population increased conflicts between those societies became common and intensified leading to the Mfecane.

(ii) Shortage of land, the people who occupied Zulu land were farmers, but the existing land was not enough due to population pressure, therefore the search for more land caused conflicts that later contributed to the outbreak of the Mfecane.

(iii) The role of Shaka, Shaka pursued an aggressive and expansionist policy to expand his Kingdom, the Zulu state. He attacked many states in the attempt to expand his state, this action created conflicts that contributed to the outbreak of the Mfecane.

(iv) Expansion of cape whites, there was the great desire by whites at the cape to expand in the interior in order to acquire more land. Therefore, the expansion of whites in cape escalated the shortage of land and thus pressurizing crushes among the tribes in the interior.

(v) The control of trade at delagoa bay. Trade in ivory with the Portuguese in Delagoa Bay was another factor that provoked conflicts among them. Because of the desire to control trade some Nguni tribes began to attack others in order to control and acquire more tribute.

(vi) The coming of the Boers. During the Boer Trek, the Boers left Cape Town away from British control and moved into the interior of South Africa, the penetration of the Boers into the interior of South Africa intensified the pressure on land which led to conflicts that caused the Mfecane.

EFFECTS OF MFECANE

(i) It led to the loss of thousands of lives as it was the warfare and crushes among the people. Many chiefs and common people lost their lives in the course of fighting.

(ii) It caused depopulation in many communities. Thousands more were uprooted from their homes and were forced to travel great distances.  Example of these were Ngoni and Ndebele. 

(iii) Destruction of properties. Refugees moving in larger groups fleeing Shakas army caused destruction in many areas they passed through.

(iv) Emergence of many new kingdoms. Many migrating tribes went to establish strong states where they settled. For example, Ndebele, Shona, and Zulu empire emerged as a very strong political entities with very wide range expansion base.

(v)  It led to the decline of many central and east African kingdoms, those kingdoms which could not stand against the military strength of the tribes from the south declined. Example of those kingdoms that were destroyed partly due to Nguni invasions were the Lozi and Rozwi

(vi) Famine and hunger. Although the mfecane in many ways promoted the political development of southern Africa, it also caused great suffering. Thousands died because of famine.

(vii) It led to the more European penetration into the interior as many areas became depopulated, made it very easy for the Dutch famers (Boers) to easily take over the place when they were looking for new lands to establish homes. Great numbers of people were displaced and frightened communities left their own areas in places like the Orange Free State, Natal and the Transvaal occupied by whites.

EAST AFRICA UNDER OMANS RULE 1840.

The Oman Arabs helped East Africans to defeat Portuguese along the coastal in 1698. Omanese now became rulers. Therefore, people of East Africa were not free apart from defeating the Portuguese but fell under new colinizers.

In 1741, Mombasa established her independence chief domain under Mazrui family; this was an order from Arab family of Mazrui origin who were resisting against Oman Sultan's heavy taxes. But later Mazrui was conquered by Sultan Seyyid Said of Oman. 

In order to control resisting governors like Ali Mazrui, Sultan Seyyid Said shifted his capital from Muscat to Zanzibar in 1840.

From 1840 onwards, Sultan Seyyid Said became the master of the East African coast.

MOTIVES/AIMS OF OMAN ARABS IN EAST AFRICA.

1) To have clear control/monopoly of trade existed at the coast especially Indian ocean trade.

2) They wanted to control all the city states along the coast effectively.

3) To stop the spread of Christianity led by Portuguese and maintaining Islamic culture.

WHY SULTAN SEYYID SAID SHIFTED HIS CAPITAL FROM MUSCAT OMAN TO ZANZIBAR

The following were the factors for sultan Seyyid Said to shift his capital from Muscat Oman to Zanzibar in 1840.

1) Good climatic condition supported the settlement of Arabs.

2) Fertile soil for agricultural purpose especially clove and coconut products.

3) Deep natural harbor in Zanzibar for importation and exportation of goods.

4) Trade activities. He wanted to control the Indian Ocean trade.

5) Abundant fresh water for irrigation and drinking.

P

6) To avoid conflict in his home after killing his brother Iman said.

IMPACTS OF OMAN ARABS (SULTAN) DOMINATION IN EAST AFRICA.

A: ECONOMIC IMPACTS.

1. Increase of slave trade.

2. Land alienation.

3. East African people were exposed to international trade.

4.The expansion of trade.

5.  Introduction of new cash crops example; coconut and cloves.

6.Establishment of feudalism where African become serfs and tenants

7. Exploitation of African resources.

B: SOCIAL IMPACTS.

1. Death due to resistance against the Arabs

2.  Spread of Swahili language.

3.  Development of Swahili language. Example Addition of Arabic words like maalim for mwalimu, Alasir, habari and hijab. 

4. Spread of Islamic religion.

5. Slavery activities.

SLAVE TRADE IN INDIAN OCEAN 

Slave: Is the person who is illegally owned and controlled by another person and is forced to work for them.

Slavery: Is an act of owning and using slaves in production.

Slave trade: Is the activity of buying and selling human beings like other commodities.

Slave trade in East Africa began after the arrival of Portuguese in 15th Century up to 1873 during the SayyidBarghash treaty or Frere treaty.

Africa experienced two types of slave trade.

1. The Indian Ocean slave trade which was conducted by Asians.

2. The Trans-Atlantic Ocean slave trade conducted by European merchants.

1. THE INDIAN OCEAN SLAVE TRADE 

Main peoples involved were Arab traders, European merchants, African chiefs like, Mirambo and NyunguyaMawe, The Nyamwezi, The Kamba, The Yao, Buganda and Bunyoro.

REASONS FOR THE EXPANSION OF THE INDIAN OCEAN SLAVE TRADE

1.  Establishment of clove plantations in Zanzibar and Pemba. The Oman Arabs who were ruling the East African coast at the time introduced plantations required large numbers of labors to attend to them. This raised demand for slaves.

2. There was also a high demand for slave labor for the French sugar plantations in Mauritius and Reunion Islands. Initially, the French mostly depended on the area around present-day Mozambique for slaves, but by the 1770s the demand exceeded supply. Hence, the French came further north, to East Africa, in search of slaves.

3. Slaves were needed as porters. They ferried goods such as ivory and gold from interior of Africa to the Coast. This was important for the ivory trade, especially to the American, Indian and British traders who took part in it.

4. Portuguese slave traders supplied slaves to the Portuguese coffee and sugar plantations in Brazil. In the first half of the 18th century, the Portuguese expanded their plantations. As a result, their sources of slaves in West Africa and Mozambique became inadequate, so they came to East Africa.

5. Slaves were in great demand as domestic workers and soldiers in the Muslims nation Arabia. The Quran forbids Muslims from enslaving other Muslims. Thus, the slaves had to come from non-Muslim regions such as the interior of East Africa. There were major slave markets in Zanzibar, Bagamoyo, Pemba, Kilwa, Mikindani and Mombasa.

HOW SLAVES WERE OBTAINED (TECHNIQUES USED TO OBTAIN SLAVES)

Slaves were obtained through various ways:

(i) Through raiding village and capturing people.

(ii) Through selling prisoners of war obtained from local civil wars.

(iii) Through selling criminals like thieves and robbers.

(iv) Through selling of domestic slaves.

(v) Through waylaying and ambush.

(vi) Through use of trickery and false pretense.

IMPACTS OF SLAVE TRADE IN INDIAN OCEAN

SOCIAL EFFECTS

(i) Depopulation; many people were taken to work as slaves and others died on the way.

(ii) Insecurity and fear among the people.

(iii) Development of inter-states war.

(iv) Human torture and suffering.

(v) Hunger due to lack of food in areas where slave trade operated.

(vi) Growth of Arab towns such as Tabora and Ujiji.

(vii) Eruption of diseases among overcrowded slaves.

(viii) Displacement of people and many became homeless.

(ix) Introduction of Swahili language, this was introduced in land and is now being widely spoken in Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda and eastern Congo.

(x) Introduction of Islamic religion, Islam as a religion was introduced by the Arabs and it spread, especially in Yao land and in Buganda land.

ECONOMIC EFFECTS

(i) Decline of economic activities like agriculture, pastoralism and industries were killed due to lack of manpower.

(ii) Technological stagnation. Innovations came to standstill as all able-bodied people were taken as slaves only children and old ones were left behind.

(iii) Underdevelopment of East Africa. slave trade increased dependence on European capitalist countries. As technology declined, Africans were now dependent on European technology.

(iv) Introduction of new foods crops like maize, pawpaws, rice, and groundnuts.

(v) The increase of plantations in some areas especially the clove plantations in Zanzibar, where slaves worked.

THE PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF SLAVERY ON ITS VICTIMS

(i) Damage of slave's self-worth.

(ii) Inferiority complex before their masters.

(iii) Sufferings due to difficult work.

(iv) Separation of families and relatives.

(v) Loneliness.

(vi) Stress due to unsure about their future, survival and food.

(vii) Fear and Insecurity.

2. TRIANGULAR SLAVE TRADE

Refers to the trade that involved three continents of America, Africa and Europe.

The Atlantic slave trade was divided into two eras, known as first and second Atlantic system.

(a) The first Atlantic system

This was the trade of enslavement of Africans primarily to South American colonies of the Portuguese and Spanish empires; it accounted for only slightly more than 3% for all Atlantic slave trade. It started (on a significant scale) in about 1502 and lasted until 1580, when Portugal was temporarily united with Spain.

(b) The second Atlantic system

This was the trade of enslavement of  Africans by mostly British, Portuguese, Brazilian, French and Dutch traders.

The main destinations of this phase were the Caribbean colonies, Brazil and America. A number of European countries built up economically slave dependent colonies in the New World. Amongst the proponents of this system were Francis Drake and John Hawkins.

ORIGIN OF TRANS-ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE

The Portuguese were the first foreigners to capture slaves off the coast of West Africa. They built a fort on Arguin Island (Mauritania) where they bought gold and slaves from Gambia and Senegal. Most of these slaves were taken to plantations in Portugal and Southern Spain. By 1471, the Portuguese expanded their gold and slave trading activities to Ghana. In 1482, they built Elmina castle to serve as their base there.

COMMODITIES OF EXCHANGE. 

The major commodities of exchange in the triangular trade were;

AFRICA  Exported slaves, gold, ivories and animal skins.

AMERICA- exported sugar, cotton, Tobacco, Gold and Silver.

EUROPE  Supplied manufactured goods such as clothes, gunpowder, glassware, sugar and tobacco.

FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF TRIANGULAR SLAVE TRADE

(i) The rise of capitalism. This mode of production depended on exploitation of one man by another. Capitalism emerged in Europe after the decline of feudalism in Europe especially the first stage of mercantilism where slaves became part of the commodities to be traded to accumulate wealth.

(ii) Discovery of marine technology. The invention of gunpowder, shipbuilding, compass direction, and motor engine acted as a pushing force for the rise of slave trade, it facilitated the transportation of the commodities and slave dealers.

(iii) The discovery of the new world, on 24 October 1492 by Christopher Columbus. He discovered a new world that opened a new chapter as far as slave trade was concerned. It brought high sky demand of cheap labor to work in the new plantations in the Caribbean islands.

(iv) The profitability factor of the trade. This acted as an attracting force for many mercantilists to join a trade based on unequal exchange example exchanging human being with spices, umbrella, gold; Ivory with guns, mirrors and cloth.

(v) Accumulation of wealth.  Mercantilists accumulated a lot from this trade which enabled them to earn super profits obtained.

(vi) The expensiveness of White slaves, Before the mid of 17th century the European mercantilists depended on indentured labourers, criminal convicts, contract labourers and refugees from Europe who proved to be expensive and undependable compared to Africans who were not paid anything apart from their basic needs for survival and were slaves for life.

(vii) The establishment of plantations  in New world. After the discovery of the new world, many Europeans flocked to America; these included the British, French, Portuguese and the Dutch. Many of these immigrants established plantations that caused more demand for slave labor. The increased demand contributed to the development of Trans Atlantic slave trade.

(viii) Accessibility. The accessibility between the new world and the West African coast facilitated the rise of the Trans-Atlantic slave trade. The distance from West Africa to the new world is very narrow thus it made it possible for the transportation of goods between the two regions.

(ix) The inability of the indigenous people. At first the Europeans were using Native Americans (red Indians) to provide cheap labor into the plantations and mining centers; but later theyvdied in huge numbers due to plague. This called for the importation of African slaves which contributed to the rise of the Trans-Atlantic slave trade.

(x) Climatic conditions of the New World. Africans could easily live there since they were used to tropical climates and had immunity of tropical diseases more than people from Europe and Asia. They were able to withstand diseases and conditions of the New World.

(xi) The existence of seasonal winds, like the northeast trade wind, north equatorial current, the southwest and the Gulf streams encouraged the growth of this trade by enabling the vessels of the merchants to sail to Africa, New World and Europe.

IMPACT OF THE TRIANGULAR SLAVE TRADE

ECONOMIC EFFECTS

(i) Reduction of African labor, the Trans-Atlantic slave trade was associated with the uprooting of many Africans who were taken to provide cheap labor to European plantations in America. The ones who were taken were between the ages of 15 and 35 who made up the productive force in Africa.

(ii) Stagnation of African technology, the Trans-Atlantic slave trade contributed to the stagnation of African technology. It led to the flooding of European manufactured goods which were exchanged for slaves. 

(iii) Decline of African agricultural production. There was decline in agricultural production due to the loss of labor. Those who were taken as slaves were the ones who were very active in farms, thus their removal led to shortage of labor consequently causing the decline in agricultural production.

(iv) Decline of African traditional industries. Due to importation of manufactured goods Africans abandoned production and exchanged their fellow Africans with the Europeans goods. The manufactured goods from Europe also destroyed African traditional industries by killing the market for African local goods.

SOCIAL EFFECTS

(i) Depopulation, it led to depopulation because millions of Africans were uprooted and exported to America as cheap labor. It is believed that during the 400 years of slave trade, around 100,000,000 Africans were taken as slaves.

(ii) Famine. The Trans-Atlantic slave trade contributed to famine in Africa. The trade was characterized with insecurity because of frequent raids and attacks in hunting slaves. Insecurity made it difficult for people to engage in agricultural production.

(iii) Destruction of African culture. Trans-Atlantic slave trade was associated with an influx of foreigners especially Europeans. This led to a destruction of African traditional values because Africans were copying European culture.

(iv) Separation of families. Some abandoned their homes due to insecurity, some died while trying to escape and some were taken away as slaves.

POLITICAL EFFECTS

(i) Decline of western sudanic states like Ghana, Mali and Songay. This was because Trans Atlantic slave trade killed Trans- Saharan trade of which western sudanic states depended on. Also they were weakened when their subjects were captured and sold as slaves. 

(ii) The rise of states. Some strong states rose due to accumulation of wealth from slave trade mostly the forest states example Benin and Oyo.