ESTABLISHMENT OF COLONIALISM

TOPIC ONE 

ESTABLISHMENT OF COLONIALISM IN AFRICA.

 Colonialism can be defined as a situation whereby one powerful country dominates less powerful country in all spheres of life; economically, socially and politically with the aim of exploiting its resources.

 By the second half of the 19th century, the imperialist powers from Europe established colonialism in Africa in order to meet their capitalist demands such as raw materials for their industries in Europe, new areas of investment where they could invest their capital, market areas for their manufactured merchandise (goods), cheap labor and areas to settle the surplus population which was increasing at a sharp pace especially soon after the industrial and demographic revolutions in Europe from the 1750s 

STAGES OF COLONIZATION

The colonization of Africa was not an overnight process, rather a slow process that was well organized. The process of colonialism was fundamentally of three (3) main stages namely,

1.The penetration of the agents of colonialism

These were missionaries, Exploreres and traders who were in other words referred to as the forerunners of colonialism.

2. Intensive scramble for and partition (division) of Africa 

The process of the scramble for and partition of Africa was characterized by rivalries and conflicts, something which led to the summon of the Berlin Conference (the Feast of the Beasts) from November 1884 to February 1885 under the leadership of German Chancellor Edward Otto Von Bismarck. The main objective of the conference was to divide Africa amongst the imperialist powers peacefully. 

3.establishment of colonial rule from 1880s to 1900.

 This phase was characterized by the establishment of company rule, establishment of colonial economy and suppression of African resistances (reactions) against the colonial rule. 

AGENTS OF COLONIALISM IN AFRICA AND THEIR POSITIONS (ROLES) IN THE COLONIZATION PROCESS.

 Colonial agents were the Europeans who came in Africa in order to pave way for the process of colonialis.

EXPLORERS

This was the first group which came to Africa for the purpose of colleting various information about Africa especially the geographical information about Africa. 

Examples of some explorers are/were Barton and Speke 1856, they passed Tanganyika to Uganda, they discovered Lake Victoria, the name of the Queen of England by then also Henry Morton Stanley, De brazza and David Livingstone (born on 19th March 1813 and died on 1st May 1873) were famous explorers in East and Central Africa.

THE ROLES OF EXPLORERS

1. They informed the colonialists of the geographical position of Africa that helped and guided them in the process of dividing Africa. 

2. They provided valuable information about economic potentialities of Africa like the existence of minerals and fertile soil which attracted the colonialists to Africa. 

3. They participated in the abolition of slave trade and gave information on the slavery that was taking place in the interior of Africa; such information was used by the abolitionists to abolish slave trade in Africa, a move which prepared the fertile grounds for the establishment of colonialism in Africa. 

4.They sketched the map of Africa showing all the potentialities found in Africa, the map was so very important as far as the process of colonization was concerned. David Livingstone mainly did this. 

5. The explorers signed some bogus treaties with some friendly African Chiefs. For example Henry M. Stanley signed several treaties with chief Lobengula of Ndebele. These treaties provided the basis for the colonization of Africa. 

6. Some other explorers came to Africa in order to open up the interior for commerce. For instance, between 1878 and 1880 Joseph Thompson surveyed the region between Dar-es-Salaam and Lake Nyasa in order to construct a road for Zanzibars Sultan. William MacKinnon came for the purpose of opening a short route from the coast to Lake Victoria via Kilimanjaro to develop commercial activities in the interior of East Africa. 

MISSIONARIES. 

These were so called religious people who came to Africa on behalf of their home governments under the umbrella of civilizing Africans, spreading Christianity and abolishing slave trade, who considered it as an illegal/illicit/illegitimate trade.

However, these people had a hidden mission of softening the hearts and minds of Africans to accept colonialism as easily as possible. That is why some Africas scholars argue that the church was part and parcel of the capitalist system as it acted as a tool for exploitation of the Africans. 

Examples of some early missionaries in Africa were Ludwig Krapt, John Rebman, and John Moffat from Britain. 

They established missionary societies and by the 19th century, the whole continent was full of evangelical societies like the;

1.The Holy Ghost Mission from Britain (1837) 

2.The Church Missionary Society (CMS) from Britain 1799.

3.The Scottish white fathers from Scotland (1791).

THE ROLES OF THE MISSIONARIES IN THE COLONIZATION OF AFRICA.

1. They provided information and feedback to their home countries about the nature of the people of African population, structure and the natural resources.  

2. They brainwashed and softened the hearts and minds of the Africans. They used Holy scriptures as documented in the holy bible like The poor are the blessed for them the kingdom of God is theirs, Leadership comes from God Do not admire what your friend possesses, forgive those who wrong you.

3.They trained Africans in western education in missionary schools to meet the production needs of the colonialists. 

4. They largely succeeded in abolishing slave trade in Africa. 

5. They signed many treaties with the African local chiefs on behalf of their home governments. For example, Stanley in Buganda, Francis Coillard of the Paris evangelical society was very instrumental in persuading Chief Lewanyika of Southern Rhodesia in 1890 to sign a treaty with the British South African Company. 

6. Some missionaries provided social services for other colonial administrators in case of shortage. For example, accommodation, schools and colleges. 

7. They divided Africans along religious lines as one of the ways of ruling Africans via divide and rule tactic. 

8. They introduced European culture to the Africans; the missionaries regarded the Africans as barbaric.

TRADERS

These people came to Africa purposely to look for raw materials, markets and new areas for investments. They established legitimate trade and encouraged the production of commodities such as cotton, coffee, and rubber, cocoa and so forth. 

Examples of the early traders in Africa were James Stevenson, William Mackinnon, Harry Johnson, Karl Peters, Cecil Rhodes, and George Goldie and so on. These traders opened up different companies (Chartered companies) in Africa for the purpose of meeting their capitalist demands. Such companies include.

1. The German East African Company, which was founded by Karl Peters on 28 March 1884.

2. The Imperial British East African Company (I.B.E.A.C.O), which was founded by the British trader William MacKinnon on 18 April 1886. 

3.The Livingstone Company, which was founded in 1878 by James Stephen to trade ivory, gold and other products in East Africa. 

4. The United African Company (U.A.C) in 1881 and to the Royal Niger Company in 1886 under George Goldie.

5.The British South African Company, which was founded by Cecil Rhodes in 1889. 

6. International Du Congo or The International African Association under King Leopopd II of Belgium.

THE ROLES OF THE TRADERS IN THE COLONIZATION PROCESS.

1. They provided financial support to the colonial governments in the construction of physical infrastructure such as roads, railways, and harbors in order to facilitate the exploitation process. 

2.They conducted business on behalf of the colonial governments in their respective areas of administration in Africa.

3.The traders signed bogus treaties with the African local rulers on behalf of their home governments. For example, Chief Mangungo of Msovero in Kilosa signed a treaty with Karl Peters on behalf of Germany on 29 November 1884.

4. The European traders brought manufactured goods from their countries to Africa. 

5. They opened routes to the interior of Africa laying the foundation for future European exploration. The colonialists later on used the routes, which were used by the traders. 

6. The traders encouraged settlers to come to Africa to invest in various sectors like agriculture and mining. Also the traders gave settlers loans with dear interests as one of the ways of encouraging them to come and stay. 

HOW THE COLONIAL AGENTS PAVED WAY FOR COLONIZATION OF AFRICA

1. They facilitated and speeded up the process of the scramble and partition of African continent among the imperialist nations, through important information that was provided to their home government.

2. They consolidated colonialism through constant assistance, in the process of colonialism exàmple some explorers became governors, whereas missionaries trained collaborators in their schools.

3. They led to the abolition of slave trade. All colonial agents participated in its abolition good example; missionaries preached against slave trade by regarding it as against the will of God, traders on other hand introduced legitimate trade.

4. It led to the spread of Christianity by training catechists who undertook the role of converting Africans in the new religion and adaptation of western culture which led to de-culturalization of Africans.

5. Missionary won the confidence of African people and reduced the African resistance against colonialists. Example king Kasagama of Toro pleaded for the extension of Lugard's stay.

6. They led to the introduction of commercial agriculture whereby cash crops and plantations were introduced at the expense of African self-sustaining agriculture.

7. They integrated African economy into money economy. In this case, Africans became the source of raw materials for the European industries.

8. They led to the establishment of so-called legitimate trade by monopoly companies, which was unfair to the Africans and only favored the Europeans. This was because African resources were exploited to the maximum.

9. They promoted disunity among the indigenous people that promoted civil conflict defending the white mans religion example in Buganda religious war between 1885-8 among the Catholics and the protestants. They devided Africans through religion then ruled easily.

THE SCRAMBLE FOR AND PARTITION OF AFRICA.

The word scramble simply means- fight for something or struggle for something normally by many in order to get it before others do. The word partition means todivide something into small portions. 

Therefore scramble for Africa among the European powers was the process of fighting for colonies in Africa, which took place in the second half of the 19th C. 

The scramble for and partition of Africa were very remarkable events in the African history. They were a beginning of the end of African freedom. The scramble for and partition of Africa covered remarkably short period from 1884 to about 1900. It involved the occupation of the interior of Africa by European nations. 

The scramble for and partition of Africa were due to European economic and political changes. Largely, the European capitalist powers quarreled against themselves for fighting in Africa, which they considered very important and potential for them. The scramble for and partition of Africa led to the complete confiscation of African independence and sovereignty to the European powers. 

FACTORS FOR THE SCRAMBLE FOR AND PARTITION OF AFRICA.

By and large, there are two (2) main schools of thoughts, which explain the motives (reasons) behind the scramble for and partition of Africa, namely 

Eurocentric school of thought 

This explain the reasons for the scramble for Africa to be; Spreading Christianity in Africa, to abolish slave trade, to civilize Africans and eradicate Illiteracy.

 On the other end of spectrum, there is Afro-centric school of thought by African scholars and believers. This explains economic reasons to cause scramble like the need for market, cheap labour, areas for investments and raw materials.

 FACTORS FOR SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA

1. Industrial Revolution in Europe. The Industrial Revolution was the drastic change in the industrial production system that firstly occurred in Britain in 1750. This period was characterized by inventions of machines and mushrooming industries in Europe. The industrial revolution led to the construction of many industries in Europe something, which led to industrial competition over raw materials, areas for investment, cheap labor, areas to settle the surplus population and market for the European manufactured goods. All these demands led to the scramble for and partition of Africa then colonialism. Industrial revolution led to the needs of industrial demands as follows.

2. Strategic reasons. Some areas were considered more attractive and suitable for  the interests of capitalists. For example Suez Canal in Egypt was strategic because it provided easy access to three continent such as Africa, Asia and Europe. This favoured trade activities Arabia and India as it was a gateway to Asia.

3. National Prestige. Some European powers considered the scramble for and partition of Africa towards colonization as a prestigious thing. The more colonies one country had, the more powerful it was considered. Therefore they ran to Africa to acquire more colonies just to find themselves in conflict.

4. European balance of power. Before 1870 the European powers were almost equal. British was powerful on seas while French was powerful on land. After the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-71, which made France to lose her provinces of Alsace and Lorraine which were rich in coal and iron, she became weak. The only way left was to look for colonies in Africa to compensate for the loss. France found herself scrambling for Morocco and Tunisia.

5. Humanitarian reasons and civilization. Some European scholars argue that the scramble for and partition of Africa was for civilizing Africans who were considered to be barbaric that is; totally uncivilized, killing one another, undertaking slave trade and other animal-like practices.

6. Role played by the colonial agents: This is because colonial agents (Missionaries, Traders, and Explorers) provided the information/ feedback and reported on the economic potentiality of Africa that persuaded their home government to come and take over African countries. Thus through the information given they paved way for the colonization of Africa since Africa became globally known.

FACTORS, WHICH MADE SOME AREAS IN AFRICA TO EXPERIENCE INTENSIVE SCRAMBLE THAN OTHERS.

Some areas were mostly scrambled for by European powers due to;

1. Accessibility to the interior. Areas like rivee Nile, Congo and Niger had easy access to the interior. This made the transportation of raw material possible.  Portugal, Belgium and France struggled fiercely to to colonize these areas.

2. Fertile land/Agricultural Potentialities: Those areas which had proven soil fertility which ensured both growth and development of cash crops such as palm oil, cotton, coffee, sisal, and rubber were mostly scrambled than other areas. Some of these areas were like shire highlands in Malawi, Kikuyu high lands in Kenya and many other places that were fertile attracted many European powers because such areas were vital particularly in provision of reliable rainfall and good fertility which eventually fueled quick development of Agricultural activities. Other areas with fertility soil were Niger basin, Congo basin, and Nile valley. In these areas, different European powers showed much interest to ensure that they take lead of it. The well-known powers whose ambition were Britain, France, Belgium, and Portugal.

3. Presence of minerals/ mineral potentialities: Those areas, which were naturally endowed with minerals such as gold, diamond, and copper, experienced more intensive scramble than others. These areas attracted mostly the European powers because of its presence of valuable minerals which ensured supply of raw materials to feed their hungry industries. 

Different areas in Africa which were endowed  with minerals included; Angola, Nigeria, Gold coast(The present day Ghana) and Congo (DRC). In all these areas different European powers showed much interest but the most ever leading powers were Belgium, Britain France and Portuguese.

4. Dense population/areas with high population. Those areas, which had dense population, were mostly preferred because they ensured constant supply of The dense population did not only ensure constant supply of labor but also the source of market for the goods, which were produced in the colonies. Some areas in Africa that had high population were like Cameroon, Senegal, Gold coast, Ghana and Niger.

5. Good climate. The areas with temperate climate were mostly scrambled for the settlement of whites. Equatorial regions like the Congo and Niger basins were mostly scrambled by the European powers than others. 

Generally; the process of the scramble for and partition of Africa led to the conflicts amongst the European powers, which threatened the peace amongst those powers. For example, the Congo crisis, the Egyptian crisis, the Niger crisis and so on. All these crises necessitated the call for the Berlin conference in order to divide Africa as peacefully as possible.  

THE BERLIN CONFERENCE OF 1884 TO 1885.

The Berlin Conference was the imperialistic conference, which was held in Berlin the capital city of Germany and named after the city in which it was held. The conference was firstly proposed by Portugal due to its claims over Congo and West Africa. It was held from Sunday, 15 November of the year 1884 up to Thursday, 26th of February of the year 1885. Under the leadership of the Germanys Chancellor by then who was a lawyer by profession Edward Leopold Otto Von Bismarck. (1st April 1815- 30th July 1898). The main agenda of the to divide Africa peacefully for the interests of the capitalist nations. Africa was not represented in the Conference, nevertheless, Denmark and the United States of America attended the conference as observers only.  

This conference is also called the Congo conference or West Africa conference. The countries, which participated in the conference, were Austria- Hungary, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Ottoman Empire, Russian Empire, Spain, SwedenNorway, The United Kingdom and the USA.

THE OBJECTIVES OF THE BERLIN CONFERENCE OF 1884 TO 1885.

1. The first and the foremost objective of the Berlin Conference of 1884 to 1885 was to divide Africa amongst the imperialist powers as peacefully as possible because of the process of the scramble and partition of Africa which had generated hatred/hostility amongst the imperialist powers. 

2.Portugal's request for the conference in order to check for its claims in the Congo Basin and West Africa, thus the request by Portugal was one of the agenda which necessitated the summon of the conference in 1884.

3.To abolish slave trade and slavery in Africa and establish the so-called legitimate trade. 

4. It was called in order to discuss the European balance of power amongst the European nations. 

5. Bismarck aimed at taming (to control easily) the French hostilities, after its defeat during the Franco-Prussian war of 1870.

6.To deal with matters related to European trade and territorial claims in Africa.

7. To discuss and settle the existing territorial disputes over the Congo and Niger basin as well as other parts of African continent.

8.To avoid military confrontation among the imperialist powers that was eminent among the imperialist powers especially after the joining of Germany as a late comer in the process after taking over colonies in Togo, Cameroon, South west Africa (Namibia) and what came to be known as Germany East Africa the present Tanzania, Burundi and Rwanda.

THE TERMS / AGREEMENT/ PRINCIPALS/ RESOLUTIONS REACHED DURING THE BERLIN CONFERENCE 1884  1885.

1. The Congo basin was declared a free state under king Leopard of Belgium and the Niger River was free for navigation to all imperialist nations. It recognized Leopold's so- called International Association as the legitimate authority in Congo basin. In return, the Belgium king had to allow European traders and missionaries free access to the area.

2. They agreed that strong and sophisticated military weapons were prohibited to be brought in Africa. They allowed light weapons to be used in Africa. This aimed to maintain security in the colonies and to avoid the accessibility of such strong weapons to the colonized subjects (Africa).

3. They agreed that effective occupation should be implemented by the imperialist nations this was through setting Administrators in the colonies who were to supervise tasks.

4. They agreed that in case of the resistance by Africans to the colonial occupation, no any European country should give help to the Africans to fight fellow European.

5.They agreed that all colonial powers should take immediate measures to abolish slave trade and slavery in their colonies and to allow free access to the colonial agents in the interior as to campaign against slave trade and spread civilization in the interior.

6. They agreed that in case of any disputes among the imperialist powers they should solve it peacefully without the use of force.

7. They agreed that if a nation occupies a coastal area it had to extend it legally, to the interior.

8. Principle of notification, it was agreed that any power acquiring any part of Africa was supposed to inform another power in order to escape misunderstanding among the powers.

9.The conference also agreed that areas in Africa already proclaimed protectorate by European nations before conference should remain in their hands, such areas included the Congo and those territories which Germany had annexed like Togo, and South West Africa (Namibia)

THE EFFECTS OF THE BERLIN CONFERENCE ON AFRICA.

The Berlin conference had the following impacts/ consequences/ effects on Africa;

1. It partitioned or sliced Africa amongst the European nations into the colonial possessions and fixed boundaries in their interests. For instance, Britain got 27 colonies, France got 12 colonies, Germany got 9 colonies and Belgium got 2 colonies. 

2. It led to the loss of Africas independence and sovereignty to the European nations, which established colonial rule. 

3. It led to the abolition of slave trade and the introduction of legitimate trade, which was beneficial to the imperialist powers. 

4. It led to much suffering amongst African people under the colonial administration especially when they (Africans) resisted against colonialism.

5. It divided the ethnic groups in Africa into separate boundaries something, which implanted the spirit of disunity amongst them. For example, the Makonde in Mozambique and Tanganyika, the Luo in Kenya. Sudan and Uganda and the Maasai in Kenya and Tanganyika.  

6. It planted the seed which led to the outbreak of the First World War (1914 - 1918) and the Second World War (1939 - 1945) because the conference did not satisfy the ambitions and interests of some nations. It created dissatisfaction in territorial arrangements in Africa For example, Germany was not satisfied by the conference because powers like Britain got the Lion's share(many colonies). 

7. European nations introduced new systems of administration in Africa. The German and British employed direct rule and indirect rule respectively in their colonies, while the French and the Portuguese used the assimilation and later on association policy to administer their colonies in Africa. 

8.The Berlin conference marked the beginning of colonialism in Africa. Many European powers took control of various parts of Africa, forcing African to work for them. 

9. It led to the introduction of foreign European languages in Africa to ease colonial administration in the colonies. For example, Francophone the French-speaking countries such as Senegal, Mali, Ivory Coast and Benin. Anglophone (English-speaking) countries such as Kenya, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Ghana, and Nigeria. Lusophone (Portuguese-speaking countries such as Angola. Guinea Bissau and Mozambique.

THE PARTITION OF EAST AFRICA

The partition process of East Africa between Germany and Britain took place between1884 to 1890. It was completed into two agreements between them. 

THE FIRST ANGLO-GERMAN AGREEMENT/ DELIMITATION TREATY OF 1886.

This was the agreement between (Britain) and Germany. The reason for this agreement was Germanys recognition of Karl Peters' treaties. On arriving back in Berlin from East Africa in February 5th, 1885, Karl Peters presented his treaties to Bismarck and Kaizer William. Kaizer granted him the imperial charter. The area was by then to come under the society for the German colonization when it became chartered, the society came to be known as German East African Company. The Germany recognition of Karl Peters treaties threatened Britains interests and provoked the Sultan who protested and appealed to Britain for intervention another reason is that the British and German companies interfered with each other thus causing rivalry. 

THE TERMS OF THE TREATY

In the Anglo  German treaty of 1886 between Germany, Britain and the Sultan, the following agreements were reached. 

1. The Sultan's spheres would be Zanzibar, Pemba, Lamu, Kismayu, Brava, Merka, Mogadishu and the 10 miles coastal strip on the mainland.

2. The German spheres of influence would be; the present day Tanganyika and Dar es-Salaam. 

3. Britain part would be roughly the todays Kenya.

4. Germany was given Witu, the coastline of Kenya. 

THE SECOND ANGLO-GERMAN AGREEMENT OF 1890 (HELGOLAND TREATY).

The reasons for this agreement were;

 firstly,  the Agreement of 1886 had fixed no boundaries in the West of Tanganyika and Kenya.

 Secondly, the question of Uganda, Karl Peters was already in Uganda to make treaties for German colonization. However, by then Britain had already colonized Egypt and that had to guard the river Nile from its source to mouth. 

Thirdly, the religious conflicts amongst religious groups in Uganda. The Christians who were led by the Christian missionaries (White fathers) against the Anglicans, the Muslims and the traditionalists under Kabaka. The conflicts led to the killings of missionaries and Christians as a whole. Therefore, the missionaries seriously called upon the colonization of Uganda. The Anglican missionaries called upon the British government while the white fathers called upon German government. 

TERMS.

In the Anglo  German Agreement of 1890, there were only two parties, the German and the British. The Sultan did not matter by then. The following are the terms of the agreement. 

1. Britain spheres would be Zanzibar, Pemba, Kenya and Uganda. 

2. German lost Witu which was included in the British' possession of Kenya and in compensation she was given  an island in the North Sea called Heligoland to use it as a millitary base.

ESTABLISHMENT OF COLONIAL RULE IN AFRICA.

Immediately after the Berlin Conference on 26th February 1885, the European powers managed to establish their rule and control over Africans. The establishment of control was made effective between 1885 and 1912 when African countries became under the colonial rulers.

METHODS/TACTICS USES TO ESTABLISH COLONIAL RULE

1. Diplomacy/ Bogus treaties. This was one of the tactics, which was used by the imperialist powers to establish their colonial rule in Africa. This was practically done through agreements of treaties, which were signed between African chiefs and the agents of colonialism. The treaties signed were bogus; hence, many African chiefs lost power and independence. Example Carl Peter signed a treaty with Chief Mangungo of Msovero in Morogoro in 1884; Johnson hurry signed a treaty in 1900 with Daud Chwa of Buganda such treaties made Africans to be encroached (under) colonial rule.

2.Gunboat Diplomacy. This is the way of making another nation accepts your demands through intimidation (force). This technique was mostly used in the areas where their chiefs seemed to be reluctant to offer their areas to the colonialists example Sultan of Zanzibar surrendered a treaty to Carl Peter of German because he used this technique; captain Lugard in Nigeria used the same approach.

3. Millitary conquest. The colonial powers used military conquest in areas where diplomacy failed and when and where Africans resisted against the colonial rule; such tactics were used to suppress Chief Mkwavinyika Munyigumba Mwamvuyinga of the Hehe (1891-1898), Mkwawa died in June 1898 when he was only left with his two servants. Sergeant Merkel cut off Mkwawas head and dispatched it to Germany for Governor Von Liebert, offered 5,000 rupees to the person who would bring him Mkwawas head. The skull was finally retured to Tanganyika on 9th July 1954. Isike (Nyamwezi), Kabalenga (Bunyoro), Kaitolel Arap Samoei (Nandi). 

4. Collaboration. This was the colonial system of administration that created alliances between groups of Africans with the colonial powers against other African groups. Such a situation occurred when two (2) African groups were in conflicts. Thus, the weaker one cooperated with Europeans in order to get protection and support against its enemy. Examples of the African rulers who used collaboration method were Mangi Mandara of Moshi who cooperated with Germans against Mangi Sina of Kibosho in 1891, Chief Merere of Sangu who collaborated with the Germans against Mkwawa of the Hehe.  

5. Ideological method. In this tactic, the colonialists introduced western ideologies to soften the hearts and minds of Africans to accept colonialism. For example, the Christian missionaries introduced Christianity, which went hand in hand with the provision of colonial education, which was of course offered, to the sons and daughters of African chiefs only. As a result, those who were converted to Christians became loyal to the colonialists, hence colonialism. Thats why some historians argue that colonialism came armed with two weapons one in each hand, the bible in the left was presented first and the gun later 

6. Aplication of racism. This was the ideology, which internalized the belief that a certain race was superior to other races. The African black color was insulted to be the color of the devil, which was always painted in black color, and angels in white color as Europeans are, this brought inferiority complex amongst African. 

7. Through deportation of some of the tribal leaders who were exiled away to stop resistance. Good example, Jaja of Opobo was deported to West Indies in 1891. Mwanga of Buganda and Kabarega of Bunyoro were exiled in Seychele Island as they resisted colonial rule.

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE CHARTERED COMPANIES IN AFRICA.

During the early phase of the establishment of colonial rule in Africa, the colonial governments used charted companies to administer the colonies on their behalf. 

 A charter is a written statement describing the right that a particular group of people should have. 

OR

A written statement of the principle and aims of an organization, therefore, chartered companies are organization qualified according to the principles and aims for which they were/are established. Basically, the chartered companies were trading companies; the European colonial powers opted to use the chartered companies in order to reduce the administrative costs. 

Some of the chartered companies, which operated in Africa by then were; 

1. The Imperial British East African Company (I.B.E.A. Co 18th April 1888 under Sir William Mackinnon). 

2. The German East African Company (G.E.A. Co 28th March 1884 under Karl Peters).

3. British South Africa Company (B.S. A 1889), under Cecil Rhodes.

4. The Royal Niger Company (RNC 1886 under George Tauban Goldie).

5. The Dutch West India Company (D.W.I. Co 3rd June 1621). 

THE ROLES OF THE COMPANY RULE IN AFRICA.

1. They became active in abolishing slave trade especially in the interior of Africa. 

2. To administer the colonies on behalf of their home governments. 

3. To suppress and stop any African resistance against the imposition of the colonial rule. For example, the I.B.E.A. Co played an important role in suppressing the Nandi resistance in Kenya and so did the G.E.A. Co in Tanganyika against the Hehe under chief Mkwawa. 

4. To carry out construction of physical infrastructure in their respective areas of administration so as to ease the exploitation of Africans resources. For examples, they constructed roads, railways and harbors to ease the transportation of laborers and raw materials in the colonies. 

5. The companies under their leadership entered into bogus treaties with the African local chiefs in order to expand more spheres of influence on behalf of their home government. 

6. They opened up plantations in Africa so as to meet the very necessary capitalist demands, raw materials in particular. 

FAILURE OF THE COMPANY RULE IN AFRICA.

1. Remoteness of some areas. The company traders had difficulties in penetrating the interior of Africa because of thick forests and lack of reliable infrastructure, roads in particular. 

2. The company administration faced widespread resistances and hostility from the people of the interior of Africa; therefore, instead of concentrating on trading activities, the companies spent much time and money to suppress African resistances from the ethnic groups which were found in the interior of Africa. For example, the British trader Peter West and his thirty workers were attacked by the Nandi in Kenya in 1888, Abushiri bin Salim revolted against the Germans in Tanganyika. 

3. Running of the colonies was expensive due to lack of enough capital. For instance, staff wages and salaries this made the companies bankrupt hence, they could not get the expected profits something, which led to the failure. 

4. Lack of enough and experienced Personnel to administer the activities of the companies. The staff employed by the companies was mostly military officers who were not diplomatic and competent enough to fulfill the various duties that they were assigned to them. 

5. Language barrier. This is rooted from the fact that upon the arrival of the colonialists, Africans had no access to formal education. The traders did not know all the vernaculars that were used by the Africans by then something which led to communication breakdown, as the result some of the roles were not effectively done, hence the failure of the company. 

6. Imperfect competition between and amongst the companies.  For instance, for the case of East Africa the Imperial British East African Company under William Mackinnon had regular clashes over the region against the German East African Company under Karl Peters something, which made the companies fail to execute their functions. The clashes led to the first Anglo  German Agreement of 1886 and the second Anglo  German Agreement of 1890.

7. The threat of tropical diseases. Such as malaria. By then malaria was known to have no cure. It thus, claimed the lives of many agents of colonialism such as explorers, missionaries and traders. As a result, some of the traders did not go into the interior to trade as per the charter of their companies, besides they fell short of personnel due to death hence failure. 

8. Mismanagement or maladministration. Some chartered companies failed to execute their duties as effectively as possible due to mismanagement of funds. In this case, some leaders of the companies misallocated the funds for some objectives, which were not in accordance with the charter for which the companies were established. For example, it is historically recorded that Cecil John Rhodes (5th July 1853 went to South Africa aged 17 he entered the diamond at Kimberly in 1871 when he was 18 years, he died on 22 June 1893) had the vision of constructing a railway line from Cape Town to Cairo Egypt, the project which had started costing his company (BSC) hence failure.

AFRICAN RESISTANCES AGAINST COLONIAL RULE.

Etymologically, the term resist comes from a Latin word RESISTENTIA from the verb resistere which means hold back in Standard English language. By and large, resist means to refuse to accept something and try to stop it from happening or to fight back when attacked. One can define the term resist as dislike or opposition to a plan, idea.

 African resistance means negative reaction against colonialism that involved the use of weapons by African societies. It was the phenomenon whereby Africans became hostile to European encroachment. Before and during colonialism Africans started to resist against Europeans. This is due to the naked fact that colonialism was not accepted in Africa by both hands. Several factors like land alienation, forced labor, etcetera led Africans to resist against colonialism. 

Resistances of Africans against Europeans were highly involving Africans, who tended to use poor weapons to resist while opposing colonial rule.  

TYPES OF AFRICAN RESISTANCES. 

There were three types of African resistances namely; Active resistance, passive resistance and Collaboration.

Resistances against Europeans at the early stages of colonial rule in Africa before (1885) were known as primary resistances example Abushiri and Bwana heri resistance; while resistances fought after 1885 were known as secondary resistances example majimaji resistance.

ACTIVE RESISTANCE

These were the resistances whereby Africans took up arms and fought fiercely and strongly against Europeans; Example Nandi resistance, majimaji resistance, Hehe resistance and Chimurenga uprising. 

Active resistance is devided into small scale and large scale.

Small scale resistances

These types of resistances involved one tribe fighting against the colonialists and they basically covered a small area exampleHehe against Germans and Jaja of Opobo against British and Mandinka (under Somare Toure) against French.

Large scale resistances

They were types of resistances that involved more than one tribe fighting in unity against colonial Europeans Example

Majimaji war (it involved the Yao, Matumbi, Bena, Sangu, Mbungu, Ngoni, Zaramo, Sangu and Bena and other tribes on the southern part of Tanganyika who resisted against the Germans), Ndebele and Shona against the British and Nama and Herero against Germans in Namibia.

COLLABORATION

This was a form of reaction whereby Africans befriended with Europeans and welcomed them.

WHY COLLABORATION?

African collaborated with Europeans because of the following reaons;

1. Wrong perception, many African chiefs had wrong perceptions about the colonialists that were just visitors who would go back soon to their homes. When they realized that they came to stay they changed the resection example Kabaka Mwanga of Buganda.

2. Existence of missionaries, missionaries brainwashed the Africans to accept colonialism through Christian indoctrination and mission the education that softened Africans hearts and minds example Resistance means backwardness. Hence, such societies collaborated with the whites.

3. Existence of enmity between two or more local African tribes, example the Sangu and the Bena collaborated with Germans to fight against the Hehe.

4. Military motives, some African societies collaborated with the Europeans with the motives of acquiring weapons to use them in future. Example Menelik II in Ethiopia deliberately collaborated with Italy to acquire weapons. 

5. Source of commerce and trade, some African societies collaborated because they regarded Europeans as the source of commerce and trade by collaborating with them they would become rich example Kabaka of Buganda. 

6. They were weak militarily some of the societies allied with the foreigners because they were incapable to fight against the invaders and they saw that it was fruitless as they were weak militarily. 

7. Natural calamities, some African societies also made alliances with the whites because they had suffered greatly from natural calamities like small pox, jiggers, drought and famine.

Examples of resistances in Africa

SHONA AND NDEBELE(Southern TlRhodesia- Zimbabwe)

Shona and Ndebele are societies that are found in Southern Rhodesia. The Shona carries its origin in Southern Rhodesia while Ndebele can be traced to further parts of South of Africa.

The origin of Ndebele/Matebele can be deduced to be from South Africa. The Ndebele migrated from South Africa into Southern Rhodesia.

Due to the Mfecane war, Ndebele under Msilikazi started to migrate to north from the southern part of South Africa in 1830s, the war resulted in Shortage of land.

As they reached Southern Rhodesia, they met the Shona. They built relationships with the Shona and in the end; the Ndebele turned Shona into their servants.

The 1880s was a time when Europeans under the B.S.Ec. and several missionaries reached southern Rhodesia. Among the famous missionaries involved was R. Moffat who stayed in southern Rhodesia for not less than 30 years.

Europeans in southern Rhodesia started to collaborate with Shona while being against Ndebele.

During the time of Lobengula, who started to control Southern Rhodesia in 1880s, a position he took over after the death of Msilikazi, he (Lobengula) signed a treaty with B.S.Ec. In this treaty, he was promised to be given:

In the end, Lobengula gained nothing. Hence in 1883-1887 was the time when Ndebele under Lobengula started resisting against the British (up to this time Shona used to collaborate with the British).

NDEBELE/MATEBELE AGAINST BRITISH

 The resistance started in 1893, Ndebele against the British while Shona collaborated with the British.

NDEBELE AND SHONA RESISTANCE AGAINST THE BRITISH (CHIMURENGA WAR)

Chimurenga is a word in the Shona language roughly meaning Revolutionary Struggle During the resistance between Ndebele and British (1893  94) Shona used to collaborate with Europeans.

In 1896, a war erupted that involved Ndebele against the British, during this war, Shona also started to resist against the British, this resistance was called Chimurenga war.

During Chimurenga war, Shona and Ndebele used to fight separately against British that they failed in the resistance:

Factors for resistance against the British

1. Mwari and Mlimo cult. Africans (Ndebele) believed that the Rinderpest disease (was brought by the British). Hence, they started to fight.

2. Cultural interference - the British started to help Shona from being punished by Ndebele leaders, before the British rule, Ndebele chiefs were allowed to punish Shona.

3. Failure of the treaty between Lobengula and the British, the British did not meet the agreement; they did not give Lobengula all that they had promised him.

4.Land alienation the British under B.S.Ec. started to take land from the Africans for opening their economies hence the alienated Africans started to fight to regain their land.

5. Introduction of taxes - Africans were forced to pay cash tax an action that Africans were against as a result they started fighting more.

6. Forced labor with less pay (conscription) - Africans were forced to work in colonial economies, without being paid or with little pay, (hence Africans started to fight).

7. Harsh treatment/maladministration from the colonial government as coercive forces continued to harass Africans hence Africans resisted against this situation.

8. Cattle confiscation - Europeans started to take cattle from Ndebele by force hence resulting into resistance. At the end of this war Ndebele were defeated by the British hence, they obeyed the British rule like Shona

Effects of Chimurenga war

In 1887, both Ndebele and Shona were defeated (therefore, they agreed to be under the British Colonial rule). The resistance had several effects to both as follows:

1. It led to the destruction of properties like houses and crops. Since Africans properties were destroyed, Africans decided to destroy infrastructure built by the British colonialists.

2. It led to death of both Africans and Europeans even though the death toll for Africans was much higher.

3. The British colonial masters were forced to change their administration style to reduce resistance from Africans.

4. The resistance cost a lot; large sums of money were spent by the British to buy weapons and other things needed for the war.

5. It led to the eruption of hunger for the Africans.

6. It resulted into the decline of economic activities for both sides, for Africans (Ndebele and Shona) and for the British.

7. It led to insecurity and lack of peace and harmony.

NAMA  HERERO RESISTANCE AGAIST GERMANS (1904 - 1907)

ORIGIN OF NAMA AND HERERO

The origin of Nama and Herero can be deduced in South West Africa (Namibia). Nama was under the leadership of Hendrick Witbooi and Herero under Samuel Maherero.

Before the intrusion of Europeans in South West Africa Nama and Herero were in good relations.  Starting from 1880s Europeans started to increase in large numbers in South West Africa and they decided to collaborate with Samwel Maherero (leader of the Herero) this action led to the conflict between Nama against Herero societies.

Early 20th Century was a time when conflicts started between Herero against the Germans. Starting from 1904 Nama and Herero started to resist against the German colonial government.

FACTORS FOR NAMA  HERERO RESISTANCE AGAINST GERMANS

Several factors lead to Nama Herero resistance against Germans as follow:

1. Germans started to take land from the Africans opening their projects.

2. Africans were forced to work in colonial economic activities while being paid very little. That is forced labor.

3. Europeans introduced taxes in form of cash example head tax and hut tax.

4. Harsh treatment and brutality from the colonial government including flogging and whipping.

5. Cattle confiscation: German colonial masters started to take cattle from the Africans by force hence it resulted to resistance.

6. Loss of political power. Nama and Herero fought trying to regain their power from the German Colonial government.

MAJIMAJI RESISTANCE (1905-1907). 

By the 19th century, Germans had defeated many East African Societies such as the coastal states. In 1904, the prophet Kinjeketile Bokero Ngwale rose at Ngarambe near Rufiji River. Kinjeketile started to mobilize people under the use of local belief; he introduced the use of the magic water in which some traditional medicine powder like had been added, as a weapon in war against the Germans.

By 1905 he mobilized a pilgrimage in Ngarambe he believed that the water could be used to defeat the Germans and turn the German bullets into water. The word Maji comes from the Matumbi vernacular Mashe which means water in English Language.

After the pilgrimage, on Monday, 31st July 1905 the war started, Africans on the Southern part of Tanganyika like Matumbi, Ngindo, Lugulu, Ngoni against the Germans (they started by destroying the colonial masters cotton plantations).

Germans hanged B. Kinjeketile due to treason on 4th August 1905.

FACTORS FOR MAJIMAJI UPRISING.

Majimaji resistance was a result of several factors:

1. Africans were forced to grow crops example Cotton in the southern part of Tanganyika.

2. Introduction of hut tax (being in cash it affected many Africans as a result they decided to resist.

3. Harsh treatment from the colonial Government example Africans were highly flogged and whipped by the German colonial government askaris.

4. Colonial government used coercive forces like police, army who tended to force Africans to work in the colonial plantations (as a result Africans resisted).

5. Africans were against Arabs, Akidas and the Jumbes who were appointed by colonial government to supervise the colonial economic activities.

6. Exploitation from the colonial Government example colonial Government exported a lot of valyable resources like gold and Ivory to Europe.

7. The German askaris slept with the Ngido wives something, which embarrassed the Africans.

8. The influence of Kinjeketile Ngwale who was charismatic and religious leader who through his intelligence mobilized his fellow Tanganyikan to fight against Germans. 

9. Cultural interference by the Germans, the Christian missionaries in particular who set on fire the Africans traditional sacred huts.

FACTORS, WHICH DETERMINED THE NATURE OF AFRICAN RESISTANCES OR REACTIONS.

The nature and ways of resistances differed in Africa. While some societies had, active resistances other resisted passively or decided to collaborate with the colonial invaders. There are various factors, which explain the variation of such factors;

1. The level of development. People who had achieved great developments such as weapons like guns, strong leaders and high production in agriculture and other sectors of the economy were able to stage up stiff active resistances against the colonialists, Example Mandinka under Samouri Toure fought strongly because of strong army and modern weapons. Those with weak economies collaborated For example, chief Marere of the Sangu allied with the Germans to defend himself against the strong army of Mkwawa of the Hehe.

2. Ignorance of some rulers in several societies. Some rulers were ignorant of the white mens ambitions because they thought that Europeans would be friends who could provide them with security so they collaborated with them but it was too late when they became aware of imperialistic ambitions in their societies. 

3. Presence of Missionaries in many societies led to reaction through collaboration. European missionaries urged their converts to refrain (to stop) from resisting because such actions were signs of backwardness and endangered the souls of those who might fight actively, some of the rulers allowed the British to extend colonial rule in Eastern and Northern Uganda.

4. Individual interests among the leaders, either made them fight actively or collaborate. Those who fought were trying to protect their political positions, because they feared that the white men had planned to overthrow them from leadership posts. Some rulers who were weak could not fight back thus they chose to collaborate with the whites, for example Kahigi of Kihanja of Bukoba in Tanganyika was the weakest leader in Buhaya, so he decided to ally with the Germans. 

5. Natural calamities like Rinderpest reduced cattle, due to that Lenana leader of the Kaputie and Matapata Maasai and Sendeyo, a leader of the Loita Maasai collaborated with the whites. 

ETHIOPIANS RESISTANCE 1889 ,1913.

Ethiopia under their leadership of Menelic II managed to wage an active resistance over the Italians. 

This came into being following the death of John  IV in 1889 which Menelic signed the Uccial treaty  on May 2, 1889 that made him to be an emperor.

Later Italians became confident over attacking Ethiopia so as to compel (defeat) Menelik. It rule on 1895 in which during the 1896 at the battle (war) of Adowa the Italians were greatly defeated something that made Menelick II becomes most popular leader among the Ethiopians.

In October 1896, the Italians signed the treaty of Uccial that recognized Ethiopia as full sovereign state (independent state).

REASONS FOR THEIR RESISTANCE

Ethiopia under Menelik II resisted against Italian rule because of the following:-

1.Italians expanded their boundaries to the Maghreb as well as the white country of Ethiopia this made the Africans to fight them. 

2.The Italians stopped Menelick II from negotiating the diplomatic exchange of envoys with France and Russia. 

This is because the Uccial treaty stipulated that Ethiopia was under the Italians protectorate and That Menelik II was not allowed to make any alliance and mediation with the British, France and any other European power.

WHY ETHIOPIANS WERE NOT COLONIZED IN THE 19TH CENTURY?

Ethiopians were not colonized like any other African countries because of the following reasons:

1. Due to religious beliefs in which the Ethiopians shared single religion which united them against their enemies Christianity.

2. Ethiopians had leader who was talented on leadership and organization. 

3. Ethiopians had diplomatic relations with Europe since the 18th Century example from Italy and Portugal she got weapons.

4. Geographically Ethiopia was a mountainous country with deep valley and caves, which helped the resistors from being seen by their enemies, and therefore was able to wage guerrilla warfare.

5. Ethiopia possessed a very stable, efficient, and well-organized army compared to any other African experience and knowledge in wars this made them able to defeat enemies.

6. Ethiopians had established long a high spirit of national feeling and national unity, thus everybody had a role in defending the country against European rule.

7. Due to little economic motives and lack of mineral potentials in Ethiopia. This is because Ethiopia had a generally unpleasant climate characterized by long period of drought and most of the soils were rocky or sandy with small fertile ports, again it had no raw  materials like minerals and agricultural products. These made Europeans to remove their interest to colonize the country.

Revision Questions.

Account for the Ethiopias successful resistance against colonialism (Necta 2010 Qn.  9

Why Ethiopia was not colonized during the colonial rule?

REASONS FOR THE FAILURE OF AFRICAN RESISTANCES

Many African societies did not accept European domination and showed the reactions in different forms of resistances. However, their effort was confronted by severe attacks and defeats from colonial powers. This was because; 

1. Europeans were using superior and sophisticated weapons while Africans used inferior weapons such as spears, clubs, bows and arrows, which did not match with those of the Europeans. 

2. Europeans used modern war techniques that made them easily attack the Africans. Africans depended on their closed forts, which were the main targets of attacks from the white enemies. For instance, the Germans demolished Mkwawas fort at Kalenga in 1894.

3. Europeans had quicker means of mobility that enabled them to penetrate the heart of Africa such as the Congo forests and other areas easily. For instance, in West Africa colonialists used horses, while along the coast of East Africa Germans used steamboat to attack Abushiri at Pangani. 

4. Europeans had much knowledge of the heart of Africa, strategic areas and the nature of various people of Africa and their location. White missionaries, explorers, conveyed all such information to them and traders who visited Africa earlier thus it became easy for them to defeat Africans. 

5. The Europeans had strong and stable economies that enabled them to fight for a longer period, unlike Africans who were still in the subsistence economic that could not sustain them. 

6. The Europeans had common goals of colonizing Africans in their fights unlike African societies who lacked unity and were sometimes fighting each other or one another. For instance, the Sangu and Bena were attacking the Hehe, while Mangi Rindi attacked Mangi Sina. 

7. Some African societies suffered internal weaknesses on the accounts of slave-raiding activities, disputes and expansionism. A typical example was in Jos Plateau in Nigeria and Southern Tanganyika, where some African societies attacked or raided other societies in order to acquire slaves to sell them to the European traders.  

8. Africans had wrong superstitious beliefs. For example, the people of Southern Tanganyika were made to believe in the idea that water from Ngarambe Pool would change the white mans bullets into water, Maji Maji, which was not true. As a result, many people were killed by the German armed forces. 

9. The capture and execution of African leaders demoralized their warriors, thus leading to their defeat. A good example was the capture and execution of Kinjeketile Ngwale on 4th August 1905 and Mpanda of Southern Tanganyika, during the Maji Maji uprising. 

10. Africans were destabilized by natural calamities because of the war; these included famines and infectious diseases such as smallpox. Good example is Maasai society which suffered from cholera in 1879 to the extent that they failed to fight violently.

11. Africans lacked good leadership and unity. This occurred, as some of the leaders were reluctant to cooperate with others. Hence, each tribe entered the war on its own. As a result, it was easy for the colonialists to defeat them. 

12. Due to the betrayal from among Africans. This caused the failure of African resistance against colonialists simply because; some Africans betrayed their fellow Africans by deciding to collaborate with the white men against their neighbors this eventually weakened their unity, Good example is Sangu and Bena who allied with the Germans to defeat their neighbours Hehe.

SAMOURI TOURE RESISTANCE AGAINST THE FRENCH 1882-1898

Samouri Toure was the leader of Mandinka in Guinea.

Reasons for the resistance

1. The French activities of selling arms to Samouri's enemies such as kobe of sikassa. This aimed to weaken mandinka in order to conquer them easily.

2. Samouri wanted to safeguard trade monopolies so as to maintain regular supplies of fire arms.

3. He was shocked after his failure of his plan to sign an agreement with the British for protection against French.

4. He wanted to protect the independence of his empire.

5. He wanted to maintainhis economic prosperity

Reasons for Somouri's long fight against French.

He managed to hold the French for 16 years.

1. Strong army. He had soldiers who were well drilled and disciplined. 

2. Strong leadership. Samouri Toure was a determined leader and ambitious. He managed to organize the people of mandinka to fight actively.

3. His army used scorched earth policy of burning crops and properties to weaken their enemies.

4. The use of modern weapons. He acquired modern arms from coastal traders from Europe.

5. Strong economy. Samouri was a prominent trader in Trans- Saharan trade thus he had collected a lot of wealth and stabilized his economy therefore he was able to resist for long time.

6. Some of Samouri's soldiers had served in French army before joining him hence they had good experience in war.

7. He got support from Mandinka people. His people joined him throughout the fight.

Though Africans were defeated by the Europeans, their reaction against colonial invasion was marked as the early nationalist reaction in Africa and made them gain self-respect and were considered to be heroes of Africa