ESTABLISHMENT OF COLONIALISM IN AFRICA
ESTABLISHMENT OF COLONIALISM IN AFRICA.
Colonialism means a situation where a strong Nation forcefully dominates weaker Country or societies economically, socially and politically to exploit its resources.
By second half of 19th century, imperialist powers from Europe established colonialism in Africa to meet capitalist demands including;
- Raw materials for European industries,
- New areas for investment of surplus capital,
- Markets for industrial goods,
- Cheap labor in mines and plantations
- Areas to settle rapidly increasing surplus population after industrial and demographic revolutions in Europe from 1750s.
STAGES OF COLONIZATION
Process of colonialism went through three main stages;
1. Penetration of agents of colonialism
Agents/forerunners of colonialism included missionaries, Explorers and traders.
2. Intensive scramble for and partition (division) of Africa
Process of Scramble for Africa was characterized by rivalries and conflicts, leading to summoning of Berlin conference (the Feast of the Beasts) from November 1884 to February 1885, under the chairmanship of German Chancellor Edward Otto Von Bismark.
Main objective of Berlin conference was to divide Africa amongst imperialist powers peacefully.
3.Establishment of colonial rule from 1880s to 1900.
It was characterized by establishment of company rule, colonial economy and suppression of African resistances/reaction against colonial rule.
AGENTS OF COLONIALISM IN AFRICA AND THEIR POSITIONS/ROLES IN COLONIZATION PROCESS.
Colonial agents came to Africa to pave the way for colonization process.
EXPLORERS
Explorers was first group to arrive in Africa to collet resourceful information about African resources, political and cultural structures.
Some of explorers were Richard Barton and John Speke 1856. They passed Tanganyika to Uganda and saw Lake Nyanza and named it Victoria, after the Queen of England by then.
Henry Morton Stanley, De brazza and David Livingstone were famous explorers in East and Central Africa.
THE ROLES OF EXPLORERS
1. Provided geographical information.
They informed Europeans about Africa’s geography, helping colonial powers plan the partition of the continent.
2. Reported economic potential.
They revealed the existence of minerals, fertile lands, rivers, and other resources, highlighting Africa’s economic value.
3. Exposed the slave trade.
They reported on the ongoing slave trade in the interior. Their information supported abolitionists and later justified European intervention.
4. Mapped the continent.
They drew maps showing rivers, lakes, mountains, and entry points, which later guided colonial administrators, traders, and missionaries.
5. Signed treaties with African rulers.
Some explorers signed deceptive treaties with African chiefs to secure territorial claims. For example, Henry Morton Stanley signed treaties used to justify European claims during the partition of Africa.
6. Opened the interior for trade.
Some explored routes to promote commerce. Between 1878 and 1880, Joseph Thomson surveyed the route from Dar es Salaam to Lake Nyasa.
William Mackinnon promoted a shorter trade route from the coast to Lake Victoria through Kilimanjaro to expand commercial activities in East Africa.
MISSIONARIES.
Missionaries were European Christians who came to Africa claiming to spread Christianity, “civilize” Africans, and help abolish the slave trade.
Missionaries operated with support from home governments.
Historians argue that missionaries prepared the ground for colonial rule by influencing Africans to accept European authority.
Some African scholars view the church as part of the capitalist system, serving as an instrument of exploitation and imperial expansion.
Jomo Kenyatta wrote in The Burning Spear:
“When the missionaries arrived, the Africans had the land and the missionaries had the Bible. They taught us how to pray with our eyes closed. When we opened them, they had the land and we had the Bible.”
Early missionaries in Africa included Johann Ludwig Krapf, Johannes Rebmann, and Robert Moffat.
By 19th century, missionary societies had spread widely across African continent, establishing churches, schools, and mission stations that later played a significant role in colonial era. Missionary Societies included;
- The Holy Ghost Mission from Britain (1837).
- The Church Missionary Society (CMS) from Britain 1799.
- The Scottish white fathers from Scotland (1791).
THE ROLES OF THE MISSIONARIES IN THE COLONIZATION OF AFRICA.
1. They provided information and feedback to their home countries about nature of Africans, structure and natural resources.
2. They brainwashed and softened the hearts and minds of Africans.
Missionaries twisted Holy scriptures from the holy bible on their advantage to win the hearts of Africans, For Instance;
Romans 13:1
“Let everyone be subject to the governing authorities, for there is no authority except that which God has established. The authorities that exist have been established by God.”
Ephesians 6:5
“Slaves, obey your earthly masters with respect and fear, and with sincerity of heart, just as you would obey Christ.”
Matthew 5:44
“But I tell you, love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you.”
These verses were used to justify their rule over Africans.
3.They trained Africans in western education in missionary schools to meet production needs of colonial economy.
For Example;
- Hartzell School of Agriculture (Old Umtali Mission), Zimbabwe.
- Kakamega Agriculture School, Kenya.
- Rabai Mission School (now Isaac Nyondo Primary), Tanzania (formerly Tanganyika).
4. They succeeded in abolishing slave trade in Africa.
For example;
John Philip (1775–1851), a South Africa
Scottish missionary with the London Missionary Society, Advocated for the rights of indigenous Africans and campaigned against enslavement of local people in Cape Colony.
He presented petitions to British government exposing abuses of black laborers, influencing policies to limit slavery locally.
5. They persuaded African chiefs to sign treaties with the European capitalists.
For example, Robert Moffat of London Missionary Society, worked among the Tswana in southern Africa and acted as an intermediary, helping chiefs negotiate with Europeans.
6. Some missionaries provided social services like accommodation, schools and colleges to colonial administrators in case of shortage.
7. They divided Africans along religious lines as one of the ways of ruling Africans through divide and rule tactic.
8. They introduced European culture.
Missionaries considered Africans cultural practises barbaric, For example praying and offering sacrifices to ancestors.
They introduced Bibble God (God worshiped by Israelites) to replace traditional African ways of worship.
TRADERS
Traders arrived to Africa purposely to look for raw materials, markets and new areas for investments.
They established legitimate trade and encouraged the production of commodities such as cotton, coffee, and rubber and cocoa.
Some of early traders in Africa were James Stevenson, William Mackinnon, Harry Johnson, Karl Peters, Cecil Rhodes, and George Goldie.
Traders opened up different companies (Chartered companies) in Africa to meet capitalist demands. Such companies include;
1. The German East African Company, founded by Karl Peters on 28 March 1884.
2. The Imperial British East African Company (I.B.E.A.C.O), founded by the British trader William MacKinnon on 18 April 1886.
3.The Livingstone Company, founded in 1878 by James Stephen to trade ivory, gold and other products in East Africa.
4. The Royal Niger Company in 1886 under George Goldie.
5.The British South African Company, founded by Cecil Rhodes in 1889.
6. International Du Congo or The International African Association under King Leopopd II of Belgium.
THE ROLES OF THE TRADERS IN THE COLONIZATION PROCESS.
1. They provided financial support to colonial governments in construction of physical infrastructure such as roads, railways, and harbors to facilitate movements for exploitation process.
2.They conducted business on behalf of colonial governments in their respective areas of administration in Africa.
3.Traders signed bogus treaties with African local rulers on behalf of home governments.
For example, Karl Peters signed a treaty with Chief Mangungo of Msovero in Kilosa on behalf of Germany on 29 November 1884 .
4. European traders brought manufactured goods from Industries to Africa.
5. They opened routes to the interior of Africa laying foundation for future European exploration. Colonialists later used routes created by the traders.
6. Encouraged settlers to come to Africa to invest in agriculture and mining.
Traders gave settlers loans with dear interests as one of the ways of encouraging comfortable life in production sectors in Africa.
Reflection;
1. The forerunners paved the way for easy colonization of African continent. Justify this statement with six ponts.
THE SCRAMBLE FOR AND PARTITION OF AFRICA.
The word scramble means- fight for something or struggle for something by many to get it before others. The word partition means to divide something into small portions.
Scramble for Africa was a fighting for areas in Africa by European powers, including British, France, Germany, Portugal and Belgium, in the second half of 19th Century.
FACTORS FOR THE SCRAMBLE FOR AND PARTITION OF AFRICA.
There are two main schools of thoughts, trying to explain motives behind scramble for and partition of Africa.
1. Eurocentric school of thought
Claims that scramble for Africa was an important step towards civilizing and saving Africans from barbaric practices including paganism, slave trade and bloodshed.
2. Afro-centric school of thought by African scholars and believers.
Explains economic reasons to cause scramble for Affrica to obtain industrial demands like Markets, cheap labour, areas for investments and raw materials.
GENERAL FACTORS FOR SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA
1. Industrial revolution in Europe.
It was rapid development characterized by massive inventions of machines and increasing number of industries in Europe, leading to high demands for;
- Raw materials,
- Areas for investment,
- Cheap labor,
- Areas to settle the surplus population, and
- Markets for the European manufactured goods.
2. Strategic reasons.
Some areas were considered more attractive and suitable for capitalist interests.
For example Suez Canal in Egypt provided easy access to three continent including Africa, Asia and Europe.
It was also a gateway to Asia favouring trade activities Arabia and India.
3. National Prestige.
The more colonies a country possessed, the more powerful it was considered. Therefore Europeans rushed to Africa to acquire more colonies, finding themselves in conflict.
4. European balance of power.
Before 1870 European powers were almost equal in military capabilities.
British was powerful on seas while French was powerful on land.
But after the Franco-Prussian war (1870-1871), which ended with defeat of France and eventually loss of her provinces of Alsace and Lorraine rich in coal and iron, France became weak.
France rushed for colonies in Africa to compensate for the loss. France scrambled for Egypt, Morocco and Tunisia.
5. Humanitarian reasons and civilization.
European humanitarians claimed to colonize Africa to abolish slave trade, eradicate illiteracy and bring Africans back to the true God.
6. Sociological factor.
It is a natural tendency for human beings to dominate others. Eurpeans felt superior and deserving to control and dominate inferior Africans.
7. European Nationalism.
Involved unification of small states like Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony and Württemberg to form one big German.
Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont, Sicilies, Lombardy, Venetia, Grand Duchy of Tuscany, Duchy of Parma, Duchy of Modena, Duchy of Massa and Carrara, and the Papal States united to form one bigger Italy.
European unifications created a sense of nationhood among, lifting the spirit to expand their empires to Africa.
AREAS THAT EXPERIENCED INTENSIVE SCRAMBLE IN AFRICA
More strategic and economically potential areas in Africa experienced more competition than others. Some of these areas were;
1. Congo Basin.
It was scrambled by the British, Portugal, France, German and Belgium.
Reasons;
- Navigable waters. River Congo was a gateway to the interior parts of Africa and used to transport cargoes to and from Europe.
- Availability of Natural resources like copper, diamond, ivory and timber.
- Fertile soils of Congo basin that supported cash crop production.
2. Egypt and Nile river basin.
It was scrambled by British and French.
Reasons;
- Fertile soil of Nile basin suitable for barley and cotton plantation.
- British desire to protect river Nile from its source to mouth.
- Potentiality of Suez canal. It was a shortcut to British colonies in Asia. Suez was also an important security check point and ideal for collection of tariffs from passing ships to mediterania and Red seas.
3. The Niger basin.
It was scrambled by British, German and French.
Reasons;
- Availability of palm oil, an important lubricants for industria machines in Europe.
- It was a gateway to the interior.
- The river mouth was ideal for a military base set up, for security and collection of tariffs.
- Markets. Niger basin had high population that demanded European industrial goods.
4. Zambezi river basin.
It was scrambled by British and Portugal.
Reasons;
- It was gateway to the interior.
- Centre for trade and commerce.
- Fertile land ideal for cotton production.
- River mouth was suitable for setting up a military base.
5. South Africa.
It was scrambled by Dutch and British.
Reasons;
- The cape was an ideal location for a military base.
- Natural harbours opened up the interior of Africa.
- Gold and diamond fields in Transvaal and Orange Free States had vital mineral for European industries.
- Good climate, with enough rainfall and temperate weather that favoured white settlements.
6. East Africa.
It was scrambled by German and British.
Reasons;
- Desire to protect source of river Nile, made British to scramble for Uganda.
- East Africa was a good market for European industrial goods.
- Zanzibar Island in east Africa was strategic centre for security on the Indian ocean and commercial activities with Arabs.
SKETCH MAP SHOWING SOME AREAS THAT EXPERIENCED INTENSIVE SCRAMBLE IN AFRICA
Tap to view
African sketch map showing intensively scrambled areas
Reflection:
1.Draw a sketch map showing areas that experienced intensive scramble in Africa.
2. With examples explain why some areas in Africa were intensely scrambled for, by European capitalist powers. Six points.
BERLIN CONFERENCE OF 1884 TO 1885.
This was a meeting held in Berlin - Germany from 1884 to 1885, to settle territorial disputes among scrambling European powers, chaired by German Chancellor Edward Leopold Otto Von Bismarck.
Berlin conference was firstly proposed by Portugal due to its claims over Congo and West Africa.
Denmark and the United States of America attended Berlin conference as observers.
It was also called the Congo conference or West Africa conference or 'The feast of the beasts'
Countries that attended the meeting were Austria- Hungary, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Ottoman Empire, Russian Empire, Spain, SwedenNorway, The United Kingdom and the USA.
THE OBJECTIVES OF THE BERLIN CONFERENCE
1. Peacefully division of African land among scrambling European powers to prevent war.
2. Portugal's request for the conference to check her claims over Congo Basin and West Africa.
3. To abolish slave trade and slavery in Africa to prepare cheap labour and markets to meet capitalist demands.
4. Bismarck aimed to closely monitor the German-French hostility after its defeat during the Franco-Prussian war of 1870.
5. To dismiss unclear claims over territories.
Treaties signed between African chiefs and agents of capitalism were used as evidence to justify territorial claims.
EVENTS LEADING TO BERLIN CONFERENCE
1. French and British conflict over Egypt.
- British wanted River Nile and Suez Canal as a shortcut to her colonies in Asia.
- French wanted Suez canal for trading activities and River Nile for Irrigation activities in Chad.
Conflict over Egypt necessitated a meeting to intervene.
2. Conflicts over Congo Basin among Belgium, France, Portugal and Britain.
- Belgium sent Henry Morton Stanley to explore and sign treaties in Congo.
- French also sent Savorgnan de Brazza to explore and sign treaties.
- Portugal declared control over the Mouth of River Congo.
These incidents required a forum for discussion to clear misunderstandings.
3. British and French conflicts over Niger Valley.
- French began to construct railway to connect Dakar to Senegal and Niger Basin and occupied Porto Novo - Benin in 1882.
French move disturbed Britain's monopoly of West African coastline of Gold Coast and Nigeria.
Again French and Britain were about to enter into a clash. A preventive measure became more necessary.
THE TERMS / AGREEMENTS/ PRINCIPLES OR RESOLUTIONS REACHED DURING THE BERLIN CONFERENCE
1. Free Navigation.
All navigable rivers like Congo, Niger, Nile and Zambezi were declared free passage for all European ships.
But those territories remained under their respective colonial masters. For instance despite free passage on river Congo, the territory remained under under king Leopold II of Belgium while Niger basin was under British.
2. Strong and sophisticated military weapons were prohibited to be brought to Africa.
They agreed on light weapons to be used in Africa, to maintain security in the colonies and prevent such weapons from falling into hands of Africans.
3. Effective occupation.
This means absolute control by introducing strong military and administrative systems capable of suppressing any uprising.
4. Unity among European powers.
It was agreed that in case of resistance from Africans, no European country was to side with Africans.
Europeans were to help each other to crush African uprisings.
5. Immediate measures to abolish slave trade and slavery in the colonies.
Agents of colonialism were to be granted free access to the interior to campaign against slave trade and spread western civilization to the interior.
6. Peaceful settlement of conflicts.
In case of any disputes among the imperialist powers, negotiation was highly favoured to solve it peacefully.
7. If a nation occupies a coastal area it had to extend legally to the interior.
8. Principle of notification.
It was agreed that any power claiming an area in Africa was supposed to inform other powers to avoid territorial interference.
However;
- Contrary to the agreement, slave trade still continued in some areas up to 1920's.
- French and Belgian Congo still charged tariffs (custom duties) on ships passing through river Congo.
EVALUATION OF THE RESOLUTIONS OF BERLIN CONFERENCE
Most of the agreements were implemented and helped to solve conflicts. But some agreements were not fully implemented;
1. Slave trade still continued in some African areas up to the 1920's.
2. River Congo and Niger never became free to all European powers.
- King Leopold introduced custom duties on River Congo while,
- French occupied the northern part of Congo river and introduced tariffs.
3. Europeans did not consider the ethnic boundaries in partitioning the African continent, leading to separation of ethnic groups by colonial boundaries.
WEAKNESSES OF BERLIN CONFERENCE
1. Berlin conference did fix boundaries in the interior of Africa.
It defined spheres of influence near the coast leaving the interior unallocated.
This resulted to the signing of treaties later to solve arising conflicts, For example the Delimitation treaty 1886 and Heligoland treaty 1890 between German and British over partition of East Africa.
2. Berlin conference did not consider existence of African Kingdoms like Mandinka, Buganda and Dahomey leading to frequent resistances from Africans.
EFFECTS OF THE BERLIN CONFERENCE ON AFRICA
1. Emergence of new modern states.
African territories were officially recognized as European possessions, marking the beginning of colonialism in Africa.
These territories were later named and became modern African. Gold Coast became (Ghana), Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), Nyasaland (Malawi), Dahomey (Benin), and South West Africa (Namibia).
2. Loss of African independence and introduction of foreign administration.
African sovereignty was lost and traditional systems of self-rule were replaced by foreign systems of administration.
British used indirect rule, Germans applied direct rule, while French and Portuguese used assimilation and later association policies.
All major decisions concerning African societies were now made by Europeans.
3. Abolition of slave trade and introduction of legitimate trade.
Berlin conference contributed to suppression of slave trade and encouraged legitimate trade exchanging commodities like palm oil, rubber, cotton, and minerals with industrial goods like guns, glass, clothes and knives.
4. African resistance against colonial rule.
Africans strongly resisted colonial domination in many areas. This resistance took both peaceful and armed forms.
Examples include Maji Maji resistance in German East Africa, Samori Toure resistance in West Africa, the Ndebele and Shona uprisings in Southern Africa, and the Herero resistance in Namibia.
5. Suffering and mistreatment of Africans
Colonial rule was harsh and brutal.
In the Congo Free State, Africans who failed to meet rubber quotas had their hands cut off.
In German East Africa, many Africans were flogged, imprisoned, and publicly hanged during resistance movements.
6. Separation of African ethnic groups by artificial boundaries.
Colonial borders divided ethnic groups into different territories. For Example, Makonde of Mozambique and Tanganyika, Luo of Kenya and Uganda, Somali of Kenya, Somalia, and Ethiopia, Anyi of Ghana and Ivory Coast, and Maasai of Kenya and Tanganyika.
7. Growth of international rivalry leading to world wars.
Berlin Conference failed to satisfy the ambitions of all European powers. Germany of Nov Italy were dissatisfied with the territorial arrangements, especially because Britain acquired many colonies.
Rivalries later contributed to outbreak of the First (1914–1918) and the Second World Wars (1939–1945), that left Africa with deaths and sufferings.
8. Introduction of foreign languages and cultures.
Colonialism led to the spread of European languages.
- French became dominant in Francophone countries such as Senegal, Mali, Ivory Coast, and Benin;
- English in Anglophone countries like Kenya, Ghana, Nigeria, Zambia, and Zimbabwe; and
- Portuguese in Lusophone countries such as Angola, Guinea Bissau, and Mozambique.
9. Influx of European trading companies into Africa.
Many European chartered companies entered Africa, including
- Royal Niger Company,
- British South Africa Company (BSAC),
- Imperial British East Africa Company (IBEACO),
- German East Africa Company (GEACO), and
- International African Association (IAA).
Reflection;
1. How did the Berlin conference prevent an imperialistic war? Six points.
2. Account for the timing of Berlin Conference of 1884-1885. Six points.
3. How did the Berlin Conference shape the History of African Societies? Six points.
PARTITION OF EAST AFRICA
Partition of East Africa between Germany and Britain took place between1884 to 1890. It was completed with signing of two agreements.
FIRST ANGLO-GERMAN AGREEMENT/ DELIMITATION TREATY OF 1886
This was agreement between (Britain) and Germany. Reasons for this agreement was Germany's recognition of Karl Peters' treaties.
On arriving back to Berlin from East Africa in February 5th 1885, Karl Peters presented his treaties with East African chiefs to Bismarck and Kaizer William. Kaizer granted him the imperial charter.
The Charter came to be known as German East African Company. Germany recognition of Karl Peters treaties threatened Britain interests and provoked Sultan, who protested and appealed to Britain for intervention.
Also British and German companies interfered with each other in unallocated areas in the western territories including the modern Uganda, causing rivalry.
TERMS OF THE TREATY
In the Anglo German treaty of 1886 between Germany, Britain and the Sultan, the following agreements were reached.
1. Sultan's spheres would be Zanzibar, Pemba, Lamu, Kismayu, Brava, Merka, Mogadishu and the 10 miles coastal strip on the mainland.
2. German spheres of influence would be; the present day Tanganyika and Dar es-Salaam.
3. Britain part would be roughly the today's Kenya.
4. Germany was given Witu, the coastline of Kenya.
SECOND ANGLO-GERMAN AGREEMENT OF 1890 (HELIGOLAND TREATY).
Reasons for this agreement were;
- Agreement of 1886 had fixed no boundaries in the West of Tanganyika and Kenya with Belgian Congo.
- The question of Uganda. Karl Peters was already in Uganda to make treaties for German colonization. However, by then Britain had already colonized Egypt and that, had to protect river Nile from its source to mouth.
- Religious conflicts in Uganda. Christians under White fathers, Anglicans, Muslims and traditionalists under Kabaka did not co-exist peacefully. Religious conflicts led to killings of missionaries and Christians. As a result missionaries called upon the colonization of Uganda. Anglican missionaries called upon the British government while the white fathers called upon German government.
TERMS OF HELIGOLAND TREATY
In Anglo-German Agreement of 1890, there were only two parties, German and British.
1. Britain spheres would be Kenya, Uganda and Sultan's territories of Zanzibar and Pemba as its protectorate.
2. German lost Witu which was included in the British possession of Kenya and in compensation, German was given an island in the North Sea called Heligoland to use it as a military base.
After second Anglo-German Treaty, boundaries were fixed in South-western Uganda in 1891.
German gained Tanganyika, Ruanda and Urundi as German East African territories and bought 10 miles of coastal strip from Sultan for 200,000 German crowns.
German controlled ports of Tanga, Bagamoyo, Dar es Salaam, Kilwa and Mikindani.
Reflection;
1. Draw a sketch map of Africa and show various areas where the capitalist nations had shown interest before 1884
2. With examples show how the European capitalist nations scrambled for Africa.
3. Explain the consequences of the Anglo-German Agreements of 1886 and 1890.
4. With examples give your views on the legacy of the Berlin Conference in relation to the Socio-economic and political set-up of Africa today.
5. Analyse the events leading to the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885.
ESTABLISHMENT OF COLONIAL RULE IN AFRICA.
Immediately after the Berlin Conference on 26th February 1885, European powers managed to establish their rule and control over Africans.
Establishment of colonial control was made effective between 1885 and 1912 when African countries became under the colonial rulers.
Colonialism refers to domination of a weak nation by a powerful one economically, socially and politically.
In Africa, colonialism involved the extension of foreign domination to African countries between 1800's and 1980's.
METHODS/TACTICS USED TO ESTABLISH COLONIAL RULE
1. Diplomacy/ Bogus treaties.
Diplomacy was practically done through agreements or treaties, which were signed between African chiefs and agents of colonialism.
Bogus treaties were deceptive and mostly signed in areas with passive resistance.
For example,
- Carl Peters signed a treaty with Chief Mangungo of Msovero in Morogoro in 1884.
- Cecil Rhodes signed a treaty with chief Lobengula of Matebeleland.
- De Brazza signed a treaty with Chief Makoko of central Africa.
- Johnson hurry signed a treaty in 1900 with Daud Chwa of Buganda.
Bogus treaties were used to legitimize colonial control over Africans.
2. Gunboat diplomacy or Intimidation.
Europeans displayed their military capabilities by conducting public military drills, showing powerful deadly weapons and sometimes public execution of Africans resistance leaders by hanging.
Chief Omar Bin Makunganya was hanged by Germans in Tanganyika.
Intimidation practices aimed at instilling fear to Africans who had plans of resisting colonial rule.
3. Military conquest.
Colonial powers used direct military confrontation in areas where diplomacy failed or Africans actively resisted.
- Germans suppressed Chief Mkwavinyika Munyigumba Mwamvuyinga of Hehe in (1891-1898) and defeated him, leading to his suicide.
- Samouri Toure of Mandinka was invaded by French from 1891 to 1898
4. Collaboration.
Europeans signed friendship agreements with Africans chiefs, promising security and help in case of threat or attack from fellow hostile African communities.
Mangi Mandara of Moshi collaborated with Germans to get military support, to fight Mangi Sina of Kibosho in 1891. Also Chief Merere of Sangu collaborated with the Germans against Mkwawa of Hehe.
Europeans used fake alliances to divide and weaken Africans.
After they had defeated the enemy, Europeans turned their guns to collaborators and colonized both.
5. Ideological method.
Christian missionaries introduced Christian faith, that softened hearts and minds of Africans. Missionaries portrayed Angels as white beings and the devil in black color, instilling a sense of inferiority to Africans.
Missionaries provided a racist colonial education that prepared Africans who glorified European superiority.
Educated Africans and converted Christians, formed a class of loyal subjects to colonialists.
6. Deportation of some resisting African leaders.
Jaja of Opobo was deported to West Indies in 1891, while Kabaka Mwanga of Buganda and Kabarega of Bunyoro were exiled in Seycheles Island when they resisted colonial rule.
Queen Ranavalona III of Madagascar and her Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony, were sent to exile in Algeria by French.
COMPANY RULE IN AFRICA
During the early phase of the establishment of colonial rule in Africa, European powers used charted companies to administer colonies on their behalf.
Some of chartered companies operated in Africa
1. Imperial British East African Company (I.B.E.A.Co) 1888 under Sir William Mackinnon.
IBEACo administered Kenya and Uganda, on behalf of British.
2. German East African Company (G.E.A.Co) under Karl Peters.
GEACo administered Tanganyika, Ruanda and Urundi on behalf of German.
3. British South Africa Company (B.S.A.C) 1889 under Cecil Rhodes.
BSACo ruled South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe on behalf of British.
4. Royal Niger Company (RNC) 1886 under George Tauban Goldie.
RNC ruled Niger basin on behalf of British.
5. International African Association (IAA) under King Leopold II of Belgium.
IAA ruled Congo on behalf of Belgium.
However, Company rule failed between 1890 and 1908, leading to the establishment of direct colonial rule.
REASONS FOR THE FAILURE OF COMPANY RULE IN AFRICA
1. Remoteness of some areas.
Company traders had difficulties in penetrating interior of Africa because of thick forests and lack of reliable infrastructure like roads.
2. Resistance from Africans.
Instead of concentrating on trading activities, Chartered companies spent much time and money to suppress African resistances.
British trader, Peter West and his workers were attacked by the Nandi in Kenya in 1888. Also Abushiri bin Salim revolted against the GEACo in Tanganyika.
3. Lack of enough capital.
Companies were to manage staff wages and wellfare with their own funds, causing the companies run bankrupt. Companies could not make expected profits, causing their collapse.
Imperial British East Africa Company (IBEAC) collapsed in 1895 because it ran out of funds.
4. Shortage of experienced Personnel.
Employees of these companies were mainly military officers and traders, who had no diplomatic and leadership skills to execute administrative duties.
5. Language barrier.
Traders did not know all the vernaculars spoken by Africans, causing communication breakdown.
As a result, some of orders and instructions were not successfully conveyed.
6. Tropical disease such as malaria and small pox.
By then, malaria was known to have no cure. Malaria killed many Europeans living in Africa, causing serious shortage of personnel.
As a result, some of the traders did not go to interior parts as required.
7. Mismanagement and Exploitation.
Companies focused on profit not proper governance, leading to harsh treatment and instability.
Example: Abuses in the Congo Free State under King Leopold II led to international criticism.
AFRICAN RESISTANCES AGAINST COLONIAL RULE
African resistance means reaction to colonial intrusion and occupation.
Before and during colonialism, Africans were completely against the Europeans domination.
TYPES OF AFRICAN RESISTANCES
Africans reacted in three main ways, namely; Active resistance, passive resistance and Collaboration.
Resistances against Europeans at the early stages of colonial rule in Africa before (1885) were known as Primary resistance like Abushiri and Bwana heri uprising, while resistances after 1885 were known as Secondary resistance example majimaji resistance.
1. PASSIVE RESISTANCE
Passive resistance (also called non-violent resistance) was a method of struggle in which people opposed injustice without using violence.
Instead using weapons, Africans used non violent actions such as boycotts, strikes, civil disobedience, protests, petitions, refusal to cooperate and mass demonstrations to force change.
Plantation workers rosted seeds before sowing while others burned crops in farms.
2. COLLABORATION
Some Africans reacted by welcoming Europeans as friends mainly because they miscalculated and misunderstood the intentions of Europeans.
REASONS FOR COLLABORATION
1. Wrong perception.
Most African chiefs misunderstood the intents of colonialists. Chiefs saw Europeans as visitors and friends who would go back soon to Europe.
When African Chiefs realized Europens came to stay and dominate, it was late.
2. Role of missionaries.
European Evangelists misused Bibble verses to brainwash Africans through religious indoctrination, preaching treatment of strangers with love and No hate to your enemies.
3. Existence of enemity between African ethnic groups.
Sangu and Bena collaborated with Germans to defeat their long time enemies, the Hehe.
4. Personal ambitions.
Menelik II of Ethiopia deliberately collaborated with Italy to acquire weapons.
5.Weak Armies.
Some societies allied with Europeans because they were incapable of fighting invaders. The only way to be safe was to submit.
6. Natural calamities.
Some African societies formed alliances with Europeans because, they had suffered greatly from natural calamities like small pox, jiggers, drought and famine.
Maasai under chief Lenana were greatly exhausted by diarhoea, becoming weak and unable to fight. They chose to collaborate.
3. ACTIVE RESISTANCE
In active resistance, Africans took up arms to engage into direct military confrontation against Europeans. Some of active resistances included Nandi resistance, Majimaji resistance, Hehe resistance and Chimurenga uprising.
Active resistance is divided into small scale and large scale.
Small scale resistances
Involved single ethnic group fighting independently against the colonialists.
Small resistance covered a small area, For instance, Coatal resistance, Nandi resistance, Hehe against Germans, Jaja of Opobo against British and Mandinka (under Samouri Toure) against French.
COASTAL AFRICAN RESISTANCE
These were series of direct military confrontations between European colonialists and German East African societies.
Abushiri bin Salim Resistance
The first leader to resist colonial domination in this area was Abushiri bin Salim al Harthi, along the Pangani valley.
Abushiri started to resist and killed several Germans.
Germans sent major Hermann Von Wissmann assisted by Nubian, Somali and Zulu mercenaries to suppress Abushiri's resistance.
Germans defeated African societies and entered Pangani.
After the defeat, Abushiri ran to Mpwapwa and waged a war from there.
Abushiri was betrayed by Jumbe Magaya of Usagara leading to his capture.
Abushiri was hanged by Germans on 15th December 1889.
Bwana Heri bin Juma
Bwana Heri bin Juma of the Zigua successfully resisted German invasion of Saadani in January 1889.
Germans reorganised and launched another attack in June 1889.
Bwana Heri suffered a great loss and escaped inland, where he built a series of Forts ready to face Germans but he was defeated in 1890.
Hassani bin Omary Makunganya
Hassani bin Omary Makunganya attacked the German Forts in Kilwa in 1894.
Germans reassembled and fought back, forcing Makunganya to retreat into Mavuji village in Lindi.
Makunganya was captured and hanged in 1895 on a Mango tree.
The Mango tree was named 'Mwembe Kunyonga'.
Mwembe Kunyonga was used by Germans to hang people who disobeyed their rule.
NANDI RESISTANCE 1896 - 1905
Nandi uprising was organised by Nandi ethnic group under Orkoiyot Koitalel arap Samoei against the British occupation in Kenya.
Nandi were unhappy with construction of telegraphic lines and railway line 'the iron snake' along the rift valley.
Nandis started attacking British Military bases, uprooting and destroying wires.
Nandi resistance was caused by;
- Construction of the iron snake (railway line).
- Land allienation.
- Outbreak of rinderpest that killed Many cows. Nandi associated the disaster with presence of white men in their area.
- To maintain political and economic status.
British called a meeting to negotiate with Nandi but when Koitalel attended, they assassinated/killed him.
His followers continued to fight until 1905, when they were defeated.
How and why did Nandi manage to fight British for a long time?
1. Nature of the environment.
Nandi lived in a mountainous and forested region with steep slopes, valleys, and caves, which made movement difficult for British troops.
The terrain acted as a natural defensive barrier, slowing down European advances.
2. Secret Fighting Techniques of the Nandi.
Nandi used guerrilla warfare, including night raids and surprise attacks, which disrupted British movement and communication and reduced the effectiveness of superior British weapons.
3. Sufficient food reserve.
Nandi practiced mixed farming (crop cultivation and livestock keeping), which ensured relatively stable food supplies.
Even when crops were destroyed, they could survive on livestock, enabling them to continue resistance.
4. Nandi had a well-organized and disciplined fighting force.
Strong warrior culture and frequent conflicts with neighboring communities such as the Maasai, gave Nandi valuable military experience.
HEHE RESISTANCE
This was direct military confrontation between the Hehe under mtwa Mkwawa and Germans in Tanganyika.
By 1882, mkwawa had expanded his territory into Ugogo, southern Unyamwezi and Usagara.
Germans did not want Mkwawa to exercise his power within their administrative region, and Mkwawa was not ready to lose access to the central route from bagamoyo to Tabora during long distance trade.
When mkwawa introduced 'hongo' tax (custom duty) on traders who passed through his empire, Germans became angry.
In 1891, Emil Von Zelewisky, the German commander and his army matched towards the Hehe empire ready to attack.
Mkwawa tried to make peace with Germans but his envoys were killed.
Mkwawa ambushed Germans on 17th August 1891.
Ten Germans including Emil Von Zelewisky and more than 300 mercenaries were killed.
In 1892, Mkwawa overpowered Germans and took their military base in Kilosa.
In 1894 Germans attacked Mkwawa's capital in Kalenga, but Mkwawa escaped and continued to engage in guerilla warfare until 1898, when German forces discovered and approached his hideout.
Mkwawa shot himself dead, to avoid being captured by Germans.
Large scale resistances
Involved more than one ethnic groups, fighting in unity against colonial occupation.
For Example;
Majimaji war that involved ethnic groups such as Yao, Matumbi, Bena, Sangu, Mbungu, Ngoni, Zaramo, Sangu and Bena in southern part of Tanganyika to fight Germans from 1905-1907, Ndebele and Shona against the British in Southern Rhodesia and Nama and Herero against Germans in Namibia.
Examples of resistances in Africa
SHONA AND NDEBELE(Southern TlRhodesia- Zimbabwe)
Shona and Ndebele were the major African societies found in Southern Rhodesia (present-day Zimbabwe).
During the reign of King Lobengula, Southern Rhodesia came under British influence. Lobengula ruled Ndebele kingdom from the early 1880s after death of his father King Mzilikazi in 1868.
In 1888, Lobengula signed a treaty known as Rudd Concession with agents of Cecil John Rhodes, representing the British South Africa Company (B.S.A.C.).
Under this treaty, Lobengula was promised;
- £100 per month (later revised to £50 per month),
- 1,000 rifles,
- 100,000 rounds of ammunition,
- Protection of his kingship and Ndebele sovereignty,
- Assurance that no land would be taken without his consent.
Lobengula gained nothing of real value. British used the concession to obtain a Royal Charter in 1889, which allowed B.S.A.C to occupy and administer Southern Rhodesia without consent of Ndebele people.
Large areas were allienated, African rights were ignored, and British settlers were favored.
As a result, Ndebele under Lobengula resisted British rule, leading to First Chimurenga or Matabele War of 1893–1894.
During this period, Shona initially collaborated with the British, hoping to weaken Ndebele dominance, since they had suffered from Ndebele raids.
However, after realizing that British rule was also exploitative, Shona later joined the resistance in 1896–1897 during the wider First Chimurenga.
Factors for resistance against the British
1. Mwari and Mlimo Cult Beliefs.
Ndebele believed in Mwari/Mlimo religious cult, whose spirit mediums taught that rinderpest disease and other misfortunes were caused by the arrival of British.
Ndebele believed that fighting Europeans would drive misfortunes out and restore peace and prosperity.
2. Cultural Interference.
British interfered with traditional Ndebele authority by protecting Shona from Ndebele punishment.
Before British rule, Ndebele chiefs had rights to discipline the Shona. This interference weakened Ndebele leadership and angered Ndebele.
3. Failure of Lobengula-British Treaty.
British failed to honor the agreements made with King Lobengula, especially those in the Rudd Concession (1888).
British did not deliver all the promised payments, guns and protection, leading to distrust and resistance.
4. Land Alienation.
British South Africa Company (B.S.A.C.) took large areas of fertile African land for settlers and mining activities. Africans were pushed into poor areas, forcing them to fight to regain their ancestral land.
5. Introduction of Taxes.
British introduced hut tax and poll tax, which Africans were forced to pay in cash. This compelled Africans to work for Europeans, a system they strongly opposed, leading to resistance.
6. Forced Labour (Conscription).
Africans were forced to work on farms, mines, and roads for little or no pay. This exploitation caused widespread anger and resistance.
7. Harsh Treatment.
Colonial officials, police and settlers used violence, intimidation, and unfair laws against Africans. Continuous harassment and abuse like flogging and whipping, encouraged Africans to resist British rule.
8. Cattle Confiscation.
Europeans took Ndebele cattle by force, especially after the rinderpest outbreak.
Cattle were symbol of wealth to Ndebele and part of culture. Confiscation was a direct economic and cultural provocation resulting in a strong resistance.
Effects of Chimurenga war
In 1887, both Ndebele and Shona were defeated, falling under British rule.
1. Destruction of properties including houses and crops.
Since Africans properties were destroyed, Africans decided to destroy infrastructure built by the British colonialists as retaliation.
2. Death of both Africans and Europeans, even though death toll for Africans was much higher.
3. British colonial masters were forced to change their administration style.
British colonial government began ruling through traditional chiefs to reduce open resistance.
4. Chimurenga caused huge cost.
Large sums of money were spent by British colonial government to buy weapons and supplies needed for the war.
5. Eruption of famine and hunger.
During the suppression of the Chimurenga, British forces burned villages and destroyed food storage, leading to shortage of food.
6. Decline of economic activities for both sides.
Agriculture, trade and industrial production dropped because the responsible manpower was either recruited or killed in the war.
7. Insecurity and lack of peace.
Africans lived in fear of attacks from British troops, who adopted Scorched earth war tactic, involving burning houses and crops.
Reflection questions;
1. Account for the chimurenga uprising in Southern Rhodesia. Six points.
NAMA HERERO RESISTANCE AGAIST GERMANS (1904 - 1907)
Before intrusion of Europeans into South West Africa, Nama and Herero had peaceful relations, despite occasional competition over land and cattle.
However from 1880's, large number of Europeans, especially Germans began settling in the region.
Germans adopted a divide-and-rule policy and initially collaborated with Samuel Maharero, leader of Herero, by offering him military and political support.
This collaboration created tension and hostility between Nama and the Herero societies, leading to conflict between the two African groups.
In early 20th century, German colonial policies became oppressive. Africans lost land, cattle and political independence.
Africans were subjected to forced labour and harsh punishments. As a result, resistance against German rule intensified.
In 1904, Herero rose up against German colonial government, followed shortly by Nama under Hendrik Witbooi.
Nama and Herero resistance marked a united African struggle against German colonial domination in South West Africa.
FACTORS FOR NAMA HERERO RESISTANCE AGAINST GERMANS
1. Land allienstion.
Germans started to take fertile land from Africans for opening Plantations and Mining projects.
2. Forced labour.
Africans were forced to work in colonial Plantation, Mining and infrastructure construction with low payments.
3. Taxation.
Europeans introduced taxes in form of cash including head and hut taxes.
4. Harsh treatment and brutality from colonial government including flogging and whipping.
5. Cattle confiscation: German colonial masters started to take cattle from Africans by force resulting to resistance.
6. Loss of political power.
Nama and Herero fought trying to regain lost political control from German Colonial government.
MAJIMAJI RESISTANCE (1905-1907)
Maji Maji War was a large-scale African armed resistance against German colonial rule in German East Africa (Tanganyika), from 1905 to 1907.
Majimaji involved different African societies from southern Tanganyika who united in an attempt to oppose German oppression, forced labour, and economic exploitation.
By the end of the 19th century, Germans had defeated and subdued many East African societies, including the coastal states.
Germans imposed harsh colonial policies such as forced labour, heavy taxation, and compulsory cotton growing, creating African resentment.
In 1904, a prophet known as Kinjeketile Bokero Ngwale emerged at Ngarambe near Rufiji River. Kinjeketile mobilized Africans using traditional beliefs.
Kinjekitile introduced the use of magic water (maji) mixed with traditional medicine, which he claimed would protect Africans by turning German bullets into water.
By 1905, Kinjeketile had organized a large pilgrimage to Ngarambe, spreading the belief that the maji would ensure victory over the Germans. The word “Maji” comes from the Matumbi vernacular “Mashe,” meaning water in English.
After the pilgrimage, the war officially began on Monday, 31st July 1905. African societies in southern Tanganyika, such as the Matumbi, Ngindo, Lugulu, and Ngoni, rose up against German rule.
Majimaji resistance began with the destruction of German cotton plantations, which symbolized colonial exploitation.
Germans responded with brutal force. Kinjeketile Bokero Ngwale was captured and hanged on 4th August 1905, accused of treason.
Despite his execution, Maji Maji War continued until 1907, leaving devastating consequences for Africans and Germans.
FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF MAJIMAJI WAR.
1. Forced cash crop growing.
Africans were forced to grow crops like Cotton instead of food crops in the southern Tanganyika.
2. Taxation.
Introduction of hut tax to be paid in cash, hurt many Africans and as a result they decided to resist.
3. Harsh treatment.
Africans were highly flogged and whipped by German colonial government askaris, during tax collection and supervision in plantantations.
In some areas, German askaris forcefully took African women, including Ngindo wives, a serious violation of African cultural values.
4. Forced labour.
Colonial government used coercive apparatus like police, prison and court to force Africans to work in the colonial cotton plantations and road construction.
5. Influence of Kinjeketile Ngwale as an influential and persuasive leader.
Kinjekitile succeeded in uniting, inspiring and mobilizing a big number of Tanganyikan societies from diverse cultural backgrounds to fight together against Germans.
6. Cultural interference.
Christian missionaries set on fire the Africans traditional sacred huts, igniting anger and hatred among southern Tanganyikans, towards German rule in Tanganyika.
SAMOURI TOURE RESISTANCE AGAINST THE FRENCH 1882-1898.
Samouri Touré was a prominent Mandinka leader and founder of the Wassoulou Empire in West Africa.
He is remembered for his long and determined resistance against French colonial expansion in late 19th century.
Reasons for Samouri Touré’s Resistance
1. French Support to His Enemies.
French supplied firearms and other support to Samouri’s enemies, including the Kabe of Sikasso, aiming to weaken Mandinka and easen French conquest of the region.
2. Protection of Trade Monopolies.
Samouri wanted to maintain control over trade routes and commercial activities, particularly those involving firearms and other goods, which were crucial for sustaining his military and political power.
3. Failed Diplomatic Plans with the British.
Samouri attempted to sign an agreement with British for protection against French.
But in Berlin Conference Europeans agreed to unite against Africans.
When this plan failed, he became more determined to defend his empire independently.
4. Defense of Independence.
Samouri Toure sought to preserve sovereignty and political independence of his empire against French imperialism.
5. Maintenance of Economic Prosperity.
Samouri’s empire was economically prosperous due to trade in goods such as ivory, gold, and slaves.
Protecting this economic base was a key motivation for resisting French colonization.
Reasons for the Longevity of Samouri.
Touré’s Resistance (16 Years)
1. Strong and Disciplined Army.
Samouri had a well-trained and disciplined military force capable of sustaining long-term campaigns. His soldiers were organized into regiments and maintained strict military discipline.
2. Effective Leadership.
Samouri was a determined, strategic, and ambitious leader. He successfully mobilized the Mandinka people and inspired them to actively participate in resistance efforts.
3. Use of Scorched Earth Tactics.
His forces employed scorched earth tactics, destroying crops, villages, and resources to deprive the French army of supplies and slow their advance.
4. Access to European Weapons.
Samouri acquired firearms and ammunition through trade with European coastal merchants, giving his army a technological advantage over some French forces.
5. Strong Economic Base.
As a key figure in the Trans-Saharan trade network, Samouri accumulated wealth that allowed him to sustain his army and support prolonged resistance.
6. Experienced Soldiers.
Some of Samouri’s soldiers had previously served in the French army, providing valuable military experience, knowledge of French tactics, and training for his forces.
7. Popular Support.
The Mandinka people supported Samouri’s leadership and joined him in resisting French expansion, providing manpower, local knowledge, and loyalty throughout the campaign.
Reflection questions:
1. Why did it take so long for the French to suppress Mandinka uprising? Six points.
2. How did Samouri Toure manage to hold the French for such long leriod of time?
ETHIOPIANS RESISTANCE 1889-1913.
Ethiopia, under leadership of Emperor Menelik II, successfully waged an active resistance against Italian imperialism.
Ethiopian resistance followed the death of Emperor Yohannes IV in 1889. After his death, Menelik II signed the Treaty of Wuchale (Uccial) on 2 May 1889 with Italy.
Uccial treaty recognized Menelik as the Emperor of Ethiopia. However, the treaty contained conflicting interpretations:
While the Amharic version preserved Ethiopian independence, the Italian version claimed that Ethiopia was an Italian protectorate.
Later, Italians became confident and attempted to force their control over Ethiopia. This led to war in 1895 when Italy invaded Ethiopia in an attempt to defeat Menelik II.
In 1896, the two forces met at the Battle of Adwa, where the Italians were decisively defeated by Ethiopian army.
This victory made Menelik II one of the most popular and respected African leaders, both within Ethiopia and across Africa.
As a result of this defeat, in October 1896, Italy signed a new agreement that recognized Ethiopia as a fully sovereign and independent state, marking a major success of African resistance against European colonialism.
REASONS FOR THEIR RESISTANCE
Ethiopia under Menelik II resisted against Italian rule because of the following:
1. Italian territorial expansion and threat to Ethiopian Independence.
Italians expanded their colonial boundaries in North-East Africa, from Eritrea towards Ethiopia.
Italians expansion posed a direct threat to Ethiopia’s territorial integrity and sovereignty, forcing Ethiopians to resist to defend political independence.
2. Restrictions Imposed by the Treaty of Wuchale (Uccial).
Treaty of Wuchale (1889) attempted to place Ethiopia under Italian protection.
According to the Italian interpretation of the treaty, Menelik II was not allowed to conduct independent foreign relations or exchange diplomatic envoys with other European powers such as France, Britain, and Russia.
Interference in Ethiopia’s diplomatic freedom angered Menelik II and the Ethiopian leadership, leading to resistance to Italian domination.
WHY ETHIOPIANS WERE NOT COLONIZED IN THE 19TH CENTURY
Ethiopians were not colonized like any other African countries because of the following reasons:
1. Unity under orthodox christianity.
Orthodox Christian faith, a common religious beliefs fostered a strong sense of unity, identity and loyalty, helping Ethiopians resist external threats and invasions.
Christianity acted as both a spiritual and social glue, promoting cohesion among different ethnic groups within Ethiopian kingdom and giving them a collective purpose in defending their land and culture.
2. Strong Leadership and Organization.
Ethiopia had leaders who were skilled in governance, military strategy, and organization including Menelik II.
His effective leadership helped unite the people, coordinate resistance, and maintain stability within the kingdom, which was crucial in resisting foreign invasions.
3. Diplomatic Relations with Europe.
Since the 18th century, Ethiopia maintained diplomatic and trade relations with European powers such as Italy and Portugal.
Through these contacts, Ethiopia acquired firearms and other military supplies, which strengthened its ability to defend the kingdom.
4. Advantageous Geography.
Ethiopia’s mountainous terrain, deep valleys, and hidden caves provided natural defense advantages.
These features allowed Ethiopian forces to conduct guerrilla warfare effectively, making it difficult for invading armies to conquer or occupy the land.
5. Well-Organized and Experienced Army.
Ethiopia possessed a stable, disciplined, and well-organized army with extensive experience in warfare.
Knowledge of local terrain, tactics, and combat made them capable of defeating invading forces and resisting colonization.
6. Limited European Economic Interest.
Ethiopia offered little economic value for European colonizers. Its harsh climate, long periods of drought, rocky and sandy soils, and lack of valuable minerals or agricultural products made it less attractive for colonial exploitation.
Consequently, European powers were less motivated to attempt full-scale colonization.
Reflection Questions.
1. Account for the Ethiopias successful resistance against colonialism (Necta 2010).
2. Why was Ethiopia not colonized during the colonial era in Africa?
FACTORS, WHICH DETERMINED THE NATURE OF AFRICAN RESISTANCES OR REACTIONS.
Nature and ways of resistances differed in Africa. While some societies had, active resistances other resisted passively or decided to collaborate with the colonial invaders. There are various factors, which explain variation of such factors;
1. Level of development.
African societies that had achieved a high level of technological development including possession of advanced weapons or firearms, strong and centralized leadership, and high agricultural and industrial production, were able to organize strong and active resistance against colonialists.
For example, Mandinka under Samori Touré put up fierce resistance against the French because they had a well-organized army and access to modern firearms. This enabled them to fight effectively for many years.
In contrast, African societies with weak economies, poor military organization, and limited weapons chose collaboration as a survival strategy.
Chief Marere of Sangu allied with Germans because his army was weak infront of Mkwawa's powerful army.
2. Presence of Christian Missionaries.
Missionary influence in Buganda created Christian factions within the ruling class, and these factions collaborated with the British to gain political advantage and protection.
Missionaries advised their converts and local rulers to avoid active resistance, because Every authority on earth came from God.
3. Individual Interests of African Leaders.
Strong leaders who feared losing their political authority chose active resistance to protect their positions.
In contrast, weaker leaders who lacked military strength opted for collaboration as a means of survival. For example, Kahigi of Kihanja in Bukoba (Tanganyika), one of the weakest rulers in Buhaya, allied with the Germans.
4. Effects of Natural Calamities.
Natural disasters such as the Rinderpest epidemic reduced cattle populations, weakening pastoral societies economically and militarily.
As a result, some leaders collaborated with Europeans in the hope of gaining protection and assistance.
For instance, Lenana, leader of the Kaputiei and Matapato Maasai, and Sendeyo, leader of the Loita Maasai, collaborated with the Europeans.
REASONS FOR THE FAILURE OF AFRICAN RESISTANCES
Many African societies did not accept European domination and showed the reactions as different forms of resistances.
However, their effort was confronted by severe crushing and defeats from colonial powers. This was because;
1. Europeans were using superior and sophisticated weapons while Africans used inferior weapons such as spears, clubs, bows and arrows, which did not match those used by Europeans.
2. Europeans used advanced war techniques.
Africans depended on guerilla techniques and closed forts, which were main targets of attacks from white enemies.
Germans demolished Mkwawa's fort at Kalenga in 1894, forcing him to retreat and eventually his suicide.
3. European's advanced transport system.
Europeans had quicker means of mobility that enabled them to penetrate the heart of Africa such as Congo forests.
In west Africa colonialists used horses, while along the coast of East Africa Germans used steamboat to attack Abushiri at Pangani.
4. Europeans had much knowledge of the heart of Africa, strategic areas and the nature of various people of Africa and their location.
White missionaries, explorers and traders had conveyed information to Colonialists about geography of interior of Africa.
5. Europeans had strong and stable economies.
Strong economy enabled Europeans to fight for a longer period, unlike Africans who were still in the subsistence economy that could not sustain them throughout the war.
6. Disunity among African societies.
Europeans had common goals of colonizing Africans in their fights unlike African societies who lacked unity and were sometimes fighting each other or while some collaborated.
Sangu and Bena were attacking the Hehe, while Mangi Rindi attacked Mangi Sina.
7. Some African societies suffered internal weaknesses on the accounts of slave-raiding activities, disputes and expansionism.
In Jos Plateau, minority farming groups such as the Berom and Afizere were victims of slave raids by Sokoto caliphate and Bauchi emirate forces.
In Southern Tanganyika, societies like the Ngindo and Matumbi were raided by Yao and Arab-Swahili traders supplying slaves to Zanzibar’s coastal market.
8. Africans had wrong superstitious beliefs.
People of Southern Tanganyika were made to believe in the idea that water from Ngarambe Pool would change German bullets into water.
As a result, majimaji resistance was crushed and many people were killed by German armed forces.
9. Capture and execution of African leaders demoralized their warriors, leading to their defeat.
During the suppression of the Abushiri Revolt, the Germans captured and executed coastal leaders in 1889.
Abushiri bin Salim was hanged in 1889 after being betrayed and captured.
Omar bin Makunganya was also captured and hanged the same year at Mwembekunyonga.
10. Africans were destabilized by natural calamities.
Famines and infectious diseases such as smallpox weakened Africans including the Maasai society which suffered from cholera in 1879.
11. Betrayal by fellow Africans.
Some Africans acted as informers to the colonial governments, providing information about movements and hideouts of African guerilla warriors.
Africans such as Chief Makono in Tanganyika and Yoruba chiefs in Southern Nigeria acted as informers, providing colonial governments with critical intelligence on guerrilla fighters or resisting armies.
Reflection questions.
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