CRISES IN THE CAPITALIST SYSTEM

CRISES IN THE CAPITALIST SYSTEM.

Crisis refers to a period of great danger, difficulty or confusion, characterized by serious problems requiring quick decisions. 

Capitalist economy is a production system whereby major production sectors like Industries, Agriculture, Mining and Commerce are owned and run by private firms and individuals. 

• Under this system, governments set rules regulations and collect tariffs and taxes.

It is different from Socialist economy, where production sectors including Industrial, Agricultural, Mining and Commerce are owned and run by the state or government; For Example the USSR's economic system in 1980's.

In the context of capitalism, crises are problems, conflicts and disruptions that negatively affected capitalist production, especially in Europe and its colonies in Africa and Asia.

Capitalist crises include:

1. First World War (WWI).

2. Great Economic Depression G. E. D.

3. Second World War (WWII).

1. FIRST WORLD WAR (1914–1918).

First World War was an imperialist conflict fought between two rival alliances:

• Triple Entente: France, Britain, and Russia.

• Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy.

WWI began on Tuesday, 28 July 1914, and ended on Monday, 11 November 1918.

Immediate reason for outbreak of WWI was assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to Austro-Hungarian throne, and his wife Sophie in Sarajevo, capital of Bosnia, on Sunday, 28 June 1914. 

Assassin was Gavrilo Princip, a member of a Serbian nationalist group known as Black Hand.

On the morning of June 28, 1914, Franz Ferdinand and his wife visited Sarajevo.

At that hour a group of six assassins from Black Hand had already positioned themselves along the motorcade route.

One of them known as Cabrinovic, threw a grenade, which missed Ferdinand but injured others.

Later, as the convoy was returning from hospital where they had visited the wounded, it took a wrong turn and coincidentally passed by Gavrilo Princip, who shot and killed both Ferdinand and Sophie.

Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia and issued an ultimatum on 23 July 1914 with three main demands:

1. A formal apology and full information about the assassination.

2. Allowing Austro-Hungarian officials to participate in investigation in Serbia.

3. Suppressing anti-Austrian groups and removing involved Serbian officials.

Serbia accepted all conditions except allowing Austrian investigators enter its territory as the act threatened its sovereignty.

On 28 July 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia and bombarded Belgrade.

Russia, allied with Serbia, began mobilizing against Austria-Hungary.

Germany, allied with Austria-Hungary, issued ultimatums to Russia and France, demanding demobilization and neutrality.

France refused, and Germany declared war on France on 3 August 1914.

Britain entered the war on 4 August 1914 to support its allies in Triple Entente.

USA INVOLVEMENT.

The United States joined on 6 April 1917 to support Triple Entente, because;

• German U-boats sunk four U.S military ships carrying food and supplies to Entente powers.

• To protect loans and supplies it had given to Entente powers.

• Most U.S people have British origin. Europeans migrated to Americas during the Triangular/Trans-Atlantic slave trade

END OF THE WAR.

WWI ended on 11 November 1918, with the defeat of Germany and Triple Alliance.

CAUSES OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR.

The causes of World War I can be categorized into two major groups:

• Long-term (Underlying) Causes.

• Short-term (Immediate) Causes.

A. LONG-TERM CAUSES.

These were deep-rooted historical and political tensions that built up over long period of time and laid foundation for outbreak of WWI in 1914.

1. The Development of Capitalism.

By 1860s, capitalism had developed into its highest stage known as imperialism. This created economic rivalry among major capitalist powers including Germany, France, Britain, Italy, and Austria-Hungary. 

They competed over:

• Raw materials.

• Markets for their goods.

• Areas for investment.

• Sources of cheap labor.

For example, Germany fought France in Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871, annexing coal-rich territories of Alsace and Lorraine, creating enemity between France and Germany.

2. Unequal Division of Colonies.

Berlin Conference of 1884–1885 partitioned Africa among European powers. 

However, partition was seen unfair by countries like Italy, which received fewer colonies compared to Britain, which obtained a “lion’s share.” 

Colonial dissatisfaction sowed hatred and rivalry among European powers, leading to WWI.

3. Formation of Military Alliances.

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries there was formation of hostile military groups:

• Triple Alliance: Germany (1879 with Austria), Austria-Hungary, and later Italy (1882).

• Triple Entente: France, Russia (1890 treaty), and later Britain joined through the Entente Cordiale.

Military alliances were meant to guarantee mutual protection but instead created an atmosphere of suspicion and increased arms production, creating a war ready Europe.

4. French Revenge Movement.

After Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871), Germany annexed Alsace and Lorraine, creating hatred among French people towards German. 

Hatred towards Germans sparked a Revenge Movement (or Revanchism), as French sought to regain her lost provinces. 

French nationalist desire for revenge pushed France to join Russia and Britain to avenge for her annexed territories.

5. Balkan Crisis (Balkan Nationalism).

Balkan Peninsula, comprising countries like Serbia, Bosnia, Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro and Herzegovina, became a centre for nationalist movements and foreign interference.

Austria-Hungary sought to dominate Serbia.

Serbia, supportrd by Russia, resisted through underground nationalist groups.

This tension created repeated crises, including wars in the Balkans, resulting to assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by Gavrilo Princip in 1914.

6. Moroccan Crises (1905 and 1911).

Conflict arose between Germany and France over Morocco, a French protectorate.

In 1905 and 1911, Germany challenged French control by docking Military ships near Morocco trying to help Morocco regain independence from French.

Germany wasn’t interested in colonizing Morocco but wanted to weaken France and prevent her from regaining Alsace-Lorraine.

Moroccan crises increased hostility between Germany and France pushing Europe closer to war.

7. Arms Race and Militarism.

Big European powers, especially Germany and Britain, engaged in a massive arms race:

• Germany increased its army from 400,000 to 800,000 soldiers.

• Britain maintained naval dominance but faced pressure from Germany’s expanding navy.

• Military budgets were expanded and nations built huge standing armies with modern weapons and war plans.

Militarism created an atmosphere ready for war, where disputes could quickly escalate into full-scale war.

SHORT-TERM (IMMEDIATE) CAUSE OF WORLD WAR I.

8. Immediate cause of World War I, was assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to Austro-Hungarian throne, and his wife Sophie on 28th June 1914 in Sarajevo, capital city of Bosnia.

Ferdinand was on official visit to Bosnia when he and his wife were shot and killed by Gavrilo Princip, a 19-year-old Serbian nationalist and a member of the secret group known as the Black Hand.

IMPACTS OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR ON AFRICA.

Although World War I was physically fought in Europe, Africa was deeply affected,

because it was under European colonial rule. 

WWI brought significant changes and suffering to African territories, especially those under German control.

1. Change of Colonial masters.

After Germany's defeat, all its colonies, including Tanganyika, Rwanda, Burundi, Togo, Cameroon, and Namibia, were taken away and placed under the control of other colonial powers as League of Nations mandates.

Tanganyika was placed under British administration, Namibia (formerly German South West Africa) was given to the Union of South Africa and Rwanda and Burundi (Ruanda-Urundi) were assigned to Belgium and administered from Belgian Congo..

2. Death of Africans.

Many recruited soldiers and carriers by colonial powers, especially in German East Africa (Tanganyika) and Togo, died in the battle.

3. Spread of Diseases.

World War I contributed to spread of communicable diseases such as cholera and influenza because of overcrowded military camps, forced troop movements, refugee displacement, poor sanitation, malnutrition, and limited medical care, which created favourite conditions for epidemics to spread rapidly.

4. Destruction of Properties.

Farmlands, mines and infrastructure such as railways, telegraphs and ports in German colonies were destroyed during WWI.

5. Disruption of External Trade.

Africa bought industrial goods and exported raw materials before WWI.

Trade declined because European economic sectors including Industries were badly destroyed by explosions, leading to stagnation in industrial production and reduced demand for African raw materials.

6. Increased Exploitation.

To compensate for losses, colonial powers intensified exploitation through;

• Land alienation (Africans lost their lands).

• Low wages.

• Forced labor.

• Introduction of cash crop schemes to boost exports.

7. Drop in Raw Material Prices.

Due to economic failure in Europe, prices for African raw materials like cash crops, ivory and minerals dropped due to low demand in Europe, affecting African farmers and laborers.

8. Introduction of Agricultural Schemes.

Colonial governments introduced schemes to increase raw material production cotton and sisal to help rebuild European economies.

For example, groundnut schemes (1946–1951) in Kongwa, Urambo and Nachingwea and Sukumaland development scheme (1947–1957).

9. Reduced Social Services.

European colonial governments reduced spending on education, health and infrastructure in Africa due to the economic collapse caused by WWI.

GREAT ECONOMIC DEPRESSION (1929–1933).

Great Depression was deepest and longest-lasting economic downturn in the history of Western industrialized world. 

It began in United States and eventually affected almost every part of the world, including Europe, Africa, and Asia.

In U.S., the crisis began after stock market crash on Tuesday, 29th October 1929, a day that came to be known as Black Tuesday. 

Stock market crash brought panic and made big number of investors and speculators run bankrupt.

After World War I, U.S. emerged as the world’s leading industrial power.

At one point, U.S. produced 4.5 million cars, while Germany, Britain, and France combined produced only 500,000.

However, technological advancement and mass production in the U.S. led to:

• Overproduction (excess goods in the market).

• Underconsumption (low purchasing power among the masses).

As a result, demand for goods fell, industrial products piled up and companies began to lose profits.

In 1929, due to this imbalance:

• The U.S. stock market collapsed, share prices fell drastically.

• Investors tried to sell their shares, but prices had plummeted.

Stock market crash marked the beginning of a global economic crisis known as the Great Economic Depression.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GREAT DEPRESSION.

1. Fall in Agricultural and Industrial Production.

Factories closed, and crop yields were wasted due to lack of markets.

2. Decline in Prices of Goods.

In the U.S., price of wheat and other agricultural products fell sharply.

3. Massive Bank Closures.

Over 5,000 banks shut down in the U.S. alone by 1932 due to financial failures.

4. Massive Unemployment.

By 1932, more than 30 million people in the world had lost their jobs.

5. Collapse of National Income.

Countries experienced declines in Gross National Product (GNP) and overall income.

6. Low Wages and Poor Social Services.

Employers could not afford to pay workers. Governments cut spending on health, education and welfare.

7. Starvation and Deaths.

Economic crisis led to severe food shortages, homelessness, and loss of life, especially among the poor.

CAPITALIST PRODUCTION CYCLE

Capitalist system operates in a cyclical pattern, commonly referred to as the Capitalist Production Cycle. Capitalist cycle includes four major stages:

1. Boom (Peak).

2. Crisis.

3. Depression.

4. Recovery.

1. BOOM STAGE (PEAK).

This is a period when economy reaches its highest level of growth and prosperity. It is characterized by:

• High levels of investment.

• Very low unemployment.

• Rising standards of living.

• Social and political stability.

• Expansion of domestic and international trade.

2. CRISIS STAGE.

Crisis stage marks a sudden downturn in economic activity. It typically follows a boom and signals the beginning of a decline. Characteristics include:

• Decrease in investment.

• Rise in unemployment.

• Drop in income levels.

• Decline in trade activity.

• Fall in commodity prices.

Crisis stage reflects instability and uncertainty in the economy.

3. DEPRESSION STAGE.

This is lowest point in the economic cycle and represents a severe and prolonged decline in economic activity. It is characterized by:

• Collapse of investments and business closures.

• Massive unemployment.

• Sharp decline in living standards.

• Very low consumer and business income.

• Severe economic stagnation.

In depression stage, poverty increases and confidence in economic system is greatly weakened.

4. RECOVERY STAGE.

Recovery is the phase during which the economy begins to rebuild after a depression or recession. It shows positive signs of growth and leads back into the boom phase. 

Features of this stage include:

• Gradual increase in income.

• Rise in prices and demand for goods.

• Improvement in the standard of living.

• Reopening of banks and businesses.

• Expansion of investments.

Recovery phase indicates start of a new growth cycle.

CAUSES OF GREAT ECONOMIC DEPRESSION (1929–1933).

Great Economic Depression was caused by a combination of long-term structural weaknesses in the global capitalist economy and immediate economic shocks. These causes include:

1. Effects of World War I.

World War I severely damaged economies of almost all European countries.

To recover, nations increased industrial and agricultural production, which led to overproduction.

However, demand remained low due to mass poverty and destruction, causing underconsumption.

Infrastructures including roads, railways and industries were also destroyed, causing low supply and inadequate movement of goods and services.

2. U.S. Protective Tariffs.

United States imposed high tariffs on imported goods from Europe. Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act of 1930, aimed to protect domestic industries from foreign goods.

In response, European countries imposed tariffs on American goods.

Tariffs reduced international trade and markets. It worsened the crisis of overproduction and pushing economies into depression.

3. Unequal Distribution of Income.

Income was unequally distributed between capitalists and workers.

Workers were paid low wages despite high levels of production.

Income inequality reduced purchasing power of working class, meaning they could not afford the very goods they produced.

Income gap between production and consumption widened, resulting in saturated markets and eventually economic decline.

4. Collapse of U.S. Stock Market.

Immediate cause of Great Depression was collapse of New York Stock Exchange on 29th October 1929, known as Black Tuesday.

Many investors, fearing a collapse, rushed to withdraw money and sell their shares, driving down stock prices drastically.

This led to a collapse in both business and agricultural sectors, as capital dried up.

5. Speculators’ Failure to Repay Loans.

Speculators are people who invested in stocks, commodities and real estate using borrowed money. 

Speculators failex to repay their loans after stock market crash, leading to bank failures, financial panic and a breakdown in credit systems, deepening economic depression.

6. Nature of Capitalist Economy.

According to economists, capitalist economies are cyclical in nature and must pass through four phases: Boom, Crisis, Depression and Recovery.

Therefore, Economic depression was a natural stage in capitalist production cycle, especially after long boom of 1920's.

7. Poor Banking Structure.

In 1920s, banks were opened rapidly and without strong regulation.

In some cases, 3–5 banks operated in a single town, leading to competition, poor lending practices and high rates of failure.

Many banks extended bad loans, particularly to housing and real estate markets.

When depositors lost confidence, bank runs occurred and many banks collapsed.

EFFECTS OF GREAT ECONOMIC DEPRESSION ON AFRICA.

Although Great Depression originated in the United States, it had severe and far-reaching consequences in Africa, especially because most African territories were under colonial rule at the time. 

European colonial governments transferred the burden of the economic crisis onto their colonies, leading consequences like:

1. Drastic Fall in Prices of Raw Materials.

Prices of African raw materials dropped sharply due to decreased demand in European markets.

Sisal exported to Europe fell from £32 per ton to £12 per ton between 1931 and 1932, leading to reduced the income of African farmers and producers.

2. Reduction in Workers Wages.

To cope with G.E.D, colonial governments reduced wages in colonial sectors.

In Kenya, workers' wages fell from 36 Kenyan shillings to 10 shillings by 1930, weakening purchasing power of African workers.

3. Massive Unemployment.

Economic depression led to mass retrenchments of African workers.

Colonial governments downsized armies, closed public works, and reduced number of civil servants,  increasing poverty and hardship to Africans.

4. Introduction of Agricultural Schemes.

To boost production of export crops, colonial authorities introduced large-scale agricultural schemes.

Examples include:

• Groundnut schemes in Gambia and Tanganyika.

• Cotton schemes in Sudan and Uganda.

Agricultural schemes involved forced labor or coerced participation.

5. Intensified Exploitation.

G.E.D caused increased exploitation of African labor and resources:

• Land alienation doubled.

• New colonial taxes were introduced including hut and poll taxes.

• Forced labor mechanism increased.

• Wages were set extremely low.

These measures were intended to compensate for European economic losses.

6. Suppression of Subsistence Farming.

Africans were discouraged from growing food crops like millet, cassava, sorghum, and maize.

Instead, they were forced to grow cash crops such as cotton, coffee, cocoa and sisal.

This policy caused food insecurity and malnutrition in some areas.

7. Decline in Social Services.

Financial crisis made colonial governments cut spending on social services including Education, Healthcare and Sanitation.

Poor social services contributed to eruption of communicable disease and rise of illiteracy.

8. Establishment of Processing Industries.

Some processing industries were established in Africa to reduce cost of exporting raw materials to Europe.

Examples include:

• Cotton ginneries.

• Oil refineries.

• Coffee curing plants.

Processing industries were designed to increase both quality and quantity of raw material exports.

9. Regional Imbalances in Infrastructure Development.

Economic depression made colonial governments to invest only in productive areas.

Roads and railway lines were built in regions with high agricultural or mineral output, neglecting unproductive areas.

MEASURES TAKEN BY COLONIAL POWERS TO ALLEVIATE IMPACT OF GREAT DEPRESSION IN AFRICAN COLONIES.

Colonial powers implemented several measures to revive European economies, including;

1. Formation and Expansion of Peasant Cooperative Societies.

Colonial authorities encouraged formation of peasant cooperative societies,

to boost cash crop production and stabilize agricultural exports.

In Tanganyika, Kilimanjaro Native Cooperative Union (KNCU) was formed in 1932. 

Kagera Coffee Growers Union was established to enhance coffee cultivation among African peasants in North western Tanganyika.

2. Introduction of development schemes and forced Labor.

Colonial governments intensified forced labor policies and introduced development schemes such as:

• Uluguru Land Usage Scheme.

• Mlalo Rehabilitation Scheme.

• Usukuma and Mbulu Destocking Projects

In Tanganyika, all able-bodied men were required to work on plantations for up to 12 hours daily, while local brew shops were restricted to operate only in the evening to limit idleness.

In Kenya, labor control systems like the Kipande system were tightened, with required labor days increased from 80 to 160 annually per individual.

3. Removal of Restrictions on Cash Crop Cultivation.

In settler colonies like Kenya and Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), African peasants were permitted to grow previously restricted cash crops such as coffee, tea, and cotton.

This aimed to boost export volumes to cover shortages in the metropole/Europe.

4. Curriculum Reforms in African Education.

Colonial education system was revised to meet metropolitan economic demands.

Emphasis shifted to agriculture, vocational training, handcrafts, and technical skills, preparing Africans for labor-intensive roles in agriculture and industry.

5. Agricultural Support to Settlers and Peasants.

Colonial governments began offering subsidies to settlers and supplying hybrid seeds, fertilizers, and farm tools to both settlers and selected peasant farmers, so as to improve productivity

6. Development of Transport Infrastructure.

Colonial powers invested in expanding railways, harbors, and roads. Infrastructure improved access to labor reserves and markets and facilitated efficient movement of raw materials to ports for export.

7. Labor Recruitment and Mobilization.

Labor bureaus were established to formalize recruitment and mobilization of African labor. 

In Tanganyika, the Sisal Labour Bureau (SILABU) was set up to recruit workers for sisal plantations.

Railways played a crucial role in transporting laborers from reserves to work sites.

8.  Expansion of taxation.

New taxes were imposed, to increase colonial revenue and compel Africans into labor market, including poll tax, livestock tax, matiti tax and hut tax.

Taxes forced Africans to seek wage employment to afford tax payments.

THE SECOND WORLD WAR 

This was second imperialistic fighting from Friday 1st, September 1939 to 1945. It was fought between Axis powers, consisting of Germany, Italy and Japan against Allied powers or Democratic forces including Britain, USSR, USA and France.

WWII was deadliest fighting, the world had ever witnessed, involving the use of weapons of mass destruction such as nuclear weapons, airplanes, tanks and machine guns.

WWII ended with an invasion of Germany by Western Allies and the Soviet Union culminating in the capture of Berlin by Soviet and Polish troops.

Germany unconditionally surrendered on 8th May 1945.

After Potsdam Declaration was issued by Allied powers on 26 July 1945, calling for Japan’s unconditional surrender, Japan did not accept its terms. 

In response, United States dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima on 6 August 1945 and Nagasaki on 9 August 1945.

Nuclear bomb dropped at Hiroshima killed approximately 140,000–166,000 people including later radiation effects while in Nagasaki approximately 80,000 - 100,000 people were killed.

Japan surrendered on 15 August 1945, ending fighting in Asia, and concluded total victory of Allies.

CAUSES OF SECOND WORLD WAR

Outbreak of Second World War in 1939 was a result of a combination of long-term and short-term factors.

LONG-TERM CAUSES.

1. Failure of the League of Nations to Maintain world Peace.

League of Nations was established in 1919 after World War I to maintain international peace and security. However, it failed to; 

• Prevent militarism and aggression, especially by Germany, Italy, and Japan.

• It had no standing army to enforce its decisions.

• It lacked a clear and enforceable charter for maintaining peace.

• It failed to implement Versailles Peace Treaty effectively.

Member countries lost confidence in the League, leading to withdrawals and formation of rival alliances like Axis Powers. 

Failure of League of Nations created a power vacuum that encouraged aggression causing global conflict.

2. Rise of Dictatorship Governments in Europe.

Emergence of totalitarian regimes increased global tensions:

• Fascism in Italy under Benito Mussolini (1922).

• Nazism in Germany under Adolf Hitler (1933)

Dictatorship governments prioritized militarism, nationalism and expansionism. 

Hitler's Anti-Jewish policies led to Holocaust while aggressive foreign policies violated international agreements and created a hostile global atmosphere.

3. Italo-Ethiopian War (Abyssinia Crisis) in 1935.

In 1935, Italy under Mussolini invaded Ethiopia (then known as Abyssinia) as part of its expansionist ambitions.

Ethiopian invasion was condemned by major powers like Britain and USSR.

League of Nations failed to stop Italy, revealing its weakness, encouraging aggressors like Germany and Japan. Uncontrolled aggression prepared the road to war.

4. Effects of Great Economic Depression (1929–1933).

World economic crisis caused mass poverty, unemployment and social unrest in Europe.

G.E.D created a political forum for extremist leaders like Hitler and Mussolini, who promised recovery and national pride.

Once in power, they pursued aggressive militarization instead of economic reform.

5. Spanish Civil War (1936–1939).

Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) was fought between Republican (democratically elected) government and right-wing Nationalist rebels led by General Francisco Franco.

Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler and Fascist Italy under Benito Mussolini supported the Nationalists, using the conflict to test new weapons, tactics, and military strategies, such as aerial bombing and mechanized warfare.

Cooperation between Hitler and Mussolini in Spain strengthened fascist alliance between Germany and Italy, increasing tensions with Britain and France.

Spanish civil war is regarded as a rehearsal ground for Second World War.

6. Failure of the Appeasement (Satisfaction) Policy.

Britain and France tolerated German aggression instead of stopping it early. 

After harsh terms of the Treaty of Versailles weakened Germany, British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain believed satisfying Germany’s demands would maintain peace.

As a result, they allowed Adolf Hitler to rearm, remilitarise the Rhineland, unite with Austria, and gain the Sudetenland through the Munich Agreement. 

Instead of preventing war, appeasement encouraged Hitler, who saw it as weakness and continued expanding until Germany invaded Poland in 1939, leading to the World War II.

7. Japanese Attack on Pearl Harbor (1941).

Although WWII began in Europe in 1939, global nature of the conflict was intensified by Japan’s attack on the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor on 7th December 1941.

Surprise attack on Pearl harbour made United States enter WWII, joining Britain and USSR against Axis Powers.

IMMEDIATE CAUSE OF SECOND WORLD WAR.

8. Germany’s Invasion of Poland.

Immediate cause of the Second World War was Germany’s invasion of Poland on 1st September 1939 at 11:00 AM.

Britain and France demanded Adolf Hitler withdraw his troops from Polish territory.

Hitler ignored the ultimatum.

As a result, Britain declared war on Germany, and France followed on the same day, marking the official outbreak of World War II.

EFFECTS OF SECOND WORLD WAR

GENERAL EFFECTS.

1. Depopulation and Loss of Human Life.

WWII resulted in massive loss of lives among both soldiers and civilians.

Deadly weapons, especially atomic bombs, caused extensive casualties.

On 6th August 1945, the U.S. dropped atomic bomb on Hiroshima and on 9th August 1945, a second bomb was dropped on Nagasaki.

Nuclear bombings killed approximately 240,000 people and long-term radiation effects.

2. Formation of United Nations (UN).

On 24th October 1945, the United Nations Organization (UNO) was established, replacing the League of Nations.

Its primary aim was to maintain global peace and security and prevent the outbreak of another world war.

3. Beginning of the Cold War.

World War II led to emergence of two superpowers:

•  USA (Capitalist bloc).

•  USSR (Socialist bloc).

This resulted in Cold War, a period of political and military threats between the two blocs, characterized by:

• Arms race.

• Ideological competition.

• Proxy wars.

However, it did not involve direct warfare between the two superpowers.

4. Rise of Nationalism and Decolonization.

WWII inspired nationalist movements across colonized regions, particularly in Africa, Asia, and Latin America.

Ex-soldiers who had fought in the war became politically active, For Instance Dedan Kimath and General China in Kenya.

Ex soldiers formed political parties and liberation movements that demanded independence.

5. Division of Germany and the Berlin Wall.

After the war, Germany was divided into:

• East Germany (GDR) – Socialist, under Soviet control.

• West Germany (FRG) – Capitalist, supported by Western allies.

Division of Germany culminated in the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961, symbolizing ideological differences during the Cold War.

6. Decline in Production.

World War II caused:

•  Destruction of industries and infrastructure.

• Decline in agricultural and manufacturing output.

7. Social Suffering and Public Health Crises.

 WWII brought:

• Famine and hunger.

• Outbreaks of communicable diseases like cholera due to poor sanitation.

• Displacement of many people.

• Psychological trauma and separation of families.

8. Global Insecurity and Loss of Peace.

WWII severely disrupted global peace and security. Countries were left in fear of future conflict.

War experience led to international efforts for peacebuilding, including diplomacy and international cooperation through the UN.

EFFECTS OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR  ON AFRICA.

Although most battles of Second World War were not directly fought on African soil, Africa was significantly affected both directly and indirectly, with both positive and negative consequences.

1. Depopulation.

Many African men were recruited as soldiers to fight on the side of Britain and other Allied powers.

War recruitment took away many strong and energetic men from their communities.

A large number of African soldiers died in combat, leading to population loss and labor shortages in home countries.

2. Rise of Mass Nationalism.

WWII ignited strong nationalist movements in Africa.

Returned ex-soldiers had gained military skills, exposure to international politics and awareness of global rights.

Upon returning home, they questioned colonialism and formed or joined nationalist movements and political parties.

Examples included Dedan Kimathi and General China in Kenya, who became key figures in the anti-colonial struggle.

3. Increased Colonial Exploitation.

To rebuild war-damaged economies, colonial powers intensified exploitation in Africa through:

• Forced labor.

• Heavy taxation.

• Land alienation.

• Low wages.

Economic exploitation worsened conditions of African workers and farmers.

4. Lack of Peace and Security.

World War II created fear and instability among Africans as many men were recruited or forced into labour. Production and daily life were disrupted as resources were diverted to support the war. 

In some areas, fighting occurred, such as in North and East Africa where Italy and Germany fought Britain and its allies. 

In North Africa, Fighting erupted in Egypt, Libya, Tunisia (Italy & Germany vs Britain and Allies).

In East Africa (1940–1941), Italy attacked British Somaliland, Kenya and Sudan from Italian Ethiopia.

5. Family Separation and Social Suffering.

African families were separated because of recruitment of male members into colonial armies.

Family separation caused emotional trauma, social disruption and long-term suffering, especially among women and children left behind.

6. Development of Import Substitution Industries.

To reduce reliance on imports from Europe, colonial governments encouraged local production of goods in Africa.

Consumer goods such as cigarettes, beverages, butter, chocolate and processed meats began to be produced locally.

This marked the beginning of import substitution industries in Africa.

7. Support from United Nations Organization (UNO).

United Nations was formed on 24th October 1945, two months after the war.

It replaced League of Nations and played a key role in supporting African independence movements.

Many newly independent African states later joined the UN to gain global recognition and support.

Tanganyika For example, was placed under the UN trusteeship committee to be prepared for self rule.

8. Spread of Socialist Ideology.

USSR, as a major victor of WWII, influenced many newly independent countries in Africa.

Socialist ideology began to spread, promoting equality, state ownership, and self-reliance.

For Example: Tanzania adopted the policy of Ujamaa (Socialism and Self-Reliance) in 1967 under Julius Nyerere, while Zambia under President Kenneth Kaunda adopted a form of Socialism known as Humanism.

9. Intensification of Cash Crop Production Campaigns.

Colonial governments launched agricultural schemes to increase cash crop output, aiming to raise revenue.

Examples include:

• Sukuma Cotton Scheme.

• Nachingwea Groundnut Scheme.

Master farms were also established in rural areas to supply raw materials for export to Europe.

10. Transition from Mandate to Trusteeship Colonies.

After WWII, former mandated territories under League of Nations ( Former colonies of Tripple alliance powers) were transferred to UN Trusteeship status.

Trusteeship colonies were to be prepared for self-rule and eventual independence.

UN Trusteeship Council monitored their progress toward political freedom.

Some of colonies were;

• Tanganyika (administered by Britain) became Tanzania in 1961.

• Ruanda-Urundi (administered by Belgium) became Rwanda and Burundi in 1962.

• Somaliland (Italian Somaliland under trusteeship of Italy) later formed Somalia in 1960

Capitalist crises, WWI, G.E.D and WWII shaped global and specifically African history through their outcomes, making them an important topics of study in African curiculums.

Reflection;

Qn. 1. The first World War was an Imperialistic in nature. Justify.