DEVELOPMENT OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES AND THEIR IMPACT
DEVELOPMENT OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES AND THEIR IMPACT IN PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA.
During the pre-colonial era, African societies developed various economic activities based on the environment, availability of resources, and social organization. The main economic activities included:
- Agriculture.
- Handcraft Industries.
- Mining
- Trade.
AGRICULTURE.
Agriculture refers to the economic activity that involves crop cultivation and animal husbandry. It began during the Late Stone Age, when humans improved their tools, allowing more efficient farming.
Types of Agriculture:
1. Shifting Cultivation.
Involved growing crops on a piece of land until soil fertility declined, then moving to new, fertile land.
Common in Central and Southern Tanganyika and Northeastern Kenya.
Also known as slash-and-burn agriculture.
2. Permanent Crop Cultivation (Perennial Agriculture).
Crops were cultivated year-round, especially in areas with reliable rainfall and fertile soils.
Practised in:
- The Indian Ocean coastal region,
- Northern, Western, and Northwestern Lake Victoria,
- Highlands such as Mount Kilimanjaro, Mount Meru, Usambara, and Central Kenya.
Main crops were bananas, palm trees, and coffee.
3. Pastoralism.
This form of agriculture focused on animal keeping as the main livelihood.
Practised by pastoralist communities who relied on animals for meat, milk, blood, hides, and skins.
It was common among the;
- Turkana, Galla, Somali Nomads (Northern Kenya),
- Teso (Northern Uganda),
- Maasai (Southern Kenya and Northern Tanganyika).
4. Mixed Farming.
This system combined both crop cultivation and animal rearing.
Practised by:
- Ankole (Uganda),
- Kimbu, Sukuma, Wagogo, Nyamwezi (Tanganyika),
- Kamba and Kikuyu (Kenya).
IMPACTS OF AGRICULTURE ON PRE-COLONIAL AFRICAN SOCIETIES.
Agriculture played a transformative role in shaping the structure and development of African societies before colonial rule. Its impacts were both social and economic, as outlined below:
1. Increase in Food Production and Population Growth.
Improved agricultural techniques led to greater food availability.
This supported larger populations and reduced dependency on hunting and gathering.
2. Permanent Settlements.
As agriculture required consistent care of crops and livestock, communities began settling permanently near fertile land.
This marked a shift from nomadic to sedentary lifestyles.
3. Growth of States and Political Organization.
Clan leaders who organized agricultural production gained authority.
Over time, these leaders evolved into rulers of centralized states and kingdoms (e.g., Buganda, Bunyoro).
4. Development of Urban Centres.
Fertile areas attracted dense populations, leading to the emergence of villages and towns.
These areas often became administrative or trade hubs.
5. Expansion of Trade.
Agricultural surplus allowed communities to trade food for tools, salt, iron, and other goods.
This led to the growth of local and long-distance trade networks.
6. Specialization of Labour.
With stable food sources, not everyone needed to farm.
Some people specialized as blacksmiths, weavers, traders, or leaders, increasing societal complexity.
HANDCRAFT INDUSTRIES AND MINING IN PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA.
In pre-colonial Africa, handcraft industries and mining played an essential role in the economic and social development of societies. These activities depended on locally available resources and indigenous knowledge passed through generations.
AN INDUSTRY.
Industry refers to a place or process where raw materials are transformed into finished goods.
For example:
- Clay soil was turned into pots, jars, and mugs.
- Iron ore was turned into tools (like hand hoe and axe) and weapons (like spears and arrows).
HANDCRAFT INDUSTRIES.
Handcraft industries involved manual production of tools, weapons, and domestic items using local raw materials and human skill.
These industries did not use machines but relied on experience and craftsmanship.
Examples of handcraft industries:
- Iron smelting and blacksmithing.
- Basketry.
- Salt making.
- Pottery.
- Bark cloth making.
- Canoe making.
- Spinning and weaving.
SPECIALIZED HANDCRAFT INDUSTRIES
These industries were specialized in the production of specific goods or tools, and were organized by skilled artisans.
Examples;
- Salt making.
- Iron working.
- Copper and gold mining.
- Pottery making.
- Spinning and weaving.
- Bark cloth manufacturing.
- Canoe building.
Salt Making Industries.
Salt was a valuable mineral used for food preservation and flavoring, and it became a major trade commodity in pre-colonial Africa.
Methods of Salt Production:
1. From Reeds (Ash Extraction):
Reeds were collected, dried, and burned.
Ashes were filtered, and the liquid was evaporated to extract salt.
This was practised near Lakes Victoria, Kyoga, and Albert among the Buganda, Bahaya, and Manganja people.
2. Boiling and Evaporating Sea Water:
Sea water was boiled in pans and left to evaporate.
Salt crystals were collected from the residue.
It wad common along the East African coast.
3. Mining Salt Rocks:
Salt was mined beneath salt-bearing rocks.
It was practised in Taghaza, Bilma (Lake Chad), and near Lake Bangweulu and Luapula River in Central Africa.
4. Boiling Salty Spring Water:
In this method, natural springs containing salty water were boiled, and salt was extracted through evaporation.
It was practised at Uvinza salt springs and River Malagarasi in western Tanzania.
Iron Smelting
This is the process of extracting iron from iron ore by heating. Iron technology had spread to many areas in Africa by 1050 AD.
- The blacksmiths learnt how to identify rocks that contain iron ore which were heated in furnance using charcoal. The iron was then separated from ashes and further heated.
- Then it was shaped into different tools like knives, spears, hoes arrows and axes.
In East Africa iron smelting was practised by the societies like;
- Meru of Kenya,
- The Kerewe, Buhaya, Zinza og Geita, and Pare of Tanganyika and the
- Baganda in Uganda.
Pottery is the craft of shaping clay soil into various objects such as pots, mugs, and jars. It was commonly practiced in areas where clay was available.
In many African societies, pottery was traditionally done by women. Items like pots, pipes, and cups were produced mainly for domestic use and for trade.
Basketry.
Basketry is the traditional craft of making containers and objects by weaving together materials such as grasses, reeds, bamboo, palm leaves, or thin branches. These materials are usually flexible and natural.
Basketry is used to create a wide range of items, including: Baskets (for carrying or storage), Mats, Trays, Hats, Sieves and Fish traps.
In many African societies, basketry was not only practical, but also a form of art and cultural expression, often passed down through generations.
The Nyakyusa of Tanzania and Luo Luhya, Gikuyu and Kamba of Kenya weaved sisal baskets.
MINING.
Mining is the process of extracting mineral deposits from the earth.
Important minerals mined in pre-colonial Africa included:
- Gold.
- Copper.
- Iron ore.
- Bronze.
- Coal.
- Salt.
- Diamonds (limited and mostly in Southern Africa).
Mining contributed to the growth of early African economies and long-distance trade.
TRADE IN THE PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA.
Trade is the process of buying and selling of goods and services between people. There was a need to trade in order to get all things needed by the communities. Trade tends to develop in any society where there is surplus production.
TYPES OF TRADE.
Local Trade.
Local trade refers to the exchange of goods and services within the same geographical area, such as a town, village, or region. In this type of trade, people living in close proximity exchange goods to meet their basic needs rather than for profit-making.
For example, pastoral communities like the Maasai traded livestock products with agricultural communities such as the Nyakyusa and the Chaga, who provided vegetables and grains in return.
IMPACTS OF LOCAL TRADE IN PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA.
1. Promoted Unity Among Communities.
Trade fostered peaceful interactions and cooperation among neighboring groups.
It created networks of mutual dependence, strengthening social relations.
2. Access to Essential Goods.
Communities exchanged goods such as:
- Tools and weapons (e.g., iron hoes, spears).
- Foodstuffs (grains, livestock, fruits).
- Medicinal herbs and other natural products.
This improved the quality of life and supported survival.
3. Improvement of Transport Routes.
Regular trading led to the clearing and development of paths and roads.
Some routes later became part of major trade networks.
4. Growth of Market Centers.
Strategic trading points developed into local markets and towns.
These areas became centers of interaction, exchange, and administration.
5. Encouragement of Increased Production.
To meet trade demand, communities expanded the production of agricultural goods, craft items, and livestock.
This led to economic specialization and growth.
Regional Trade.
Regional trade refers to trade conducted from one region to another or between two different geographical regions.
Regional trade involved a wider variety of goods compared to local trade. Examples of regional trade was Trans Sahara trade, Long distance trade of East Africa and Central Africa.
THE EAST AFRICAN LONG DISTANCE TRADE.
THE EAST AFRICAN LONG DISTANCE TRADE.
In East Africa, long distance trade started when the traders from the interior began going to the coast to obtain valuable trade articles such as cloth and cooking untensil.
The Kamba, Nyamwezi and the Yao acted as middlemen.
The Kamba dominated the Nothern part, the Nywmwezi controlled the central part, while the Yao dominated the southern route.
THE KAMBA.
The Kamba were leading the long distance trade through northern route in the 19th century. The Kamba caravan brought ivory, guns, hides and beeswax from the interior.
From the Coast they obtained cloth, salt, copper, cowries shells and jewellery.
THE YAO.
The Yao traders got beads and cloth from Kilwa. They also captured and sold slaves from neighboring communities.
Yao chiefs such as Mpanda, Mataka, Machemba and Mtalika dominated the Southern route during the long distance trade.
THE NYAMWEZI.
The Nyamwezi dominated the central route conducting trade between the interior of Tanganyika and the coast. The Nyamwezi supplied slaves, ivory, hides and rhinoceros horn to the Arab coastal traders.
IMPACTS OF THE EAST AFRICAN LONG DISTANCE TRADE.
Positive Impacts of Long-Distance Trade.
1. Emergence of Wealthy Traders.
Some African traders became very rich, such as Mirambo of the Nyamwezi and Isike of the Hehe.
2. Development of Trade Centers.
Important trade towns emerged, including Saadani, Pangani, Bagamoyo, Tabora, Ujiji, Voi, and Taveta.
3. Expansion of Trade Routes.
Trade routes were developed across large parts of East and Central Africa, improving connectivity.
4. Rise of Powerful Kingdoms.
Empires such as the Nyamwezi and Hehe grew stronger due to control of trade routes and resources.
5. Introduction of New Crops.
Food crops like maize, rice, and cassava were introduced, improving local diets and farming practices.
6. Spread of Islam.
Arab traders helped spread Islam to inland areas like Tabora and Ujiji, influencing local cultures and education.
7. Access to New Goods.
African communities gained access to goods such as guns, cloth, beads, and glassware, which were not locally produced.
Negative Impacts of Long-Distance Trade.
1. Inter-Tribal Wars.
Increased demand for slaves led to inter-tribal conflicts and wars.
2. Destruction of Wildlife.
Elephants were extensively hunted for ivory, leading to ecological imbalance.
3. Depopulation and Underdevelopment.
Frequent slave raids and wars caused population loss and hindered development in many regions.
4. Insecurity and Violence.
Slave raiding brought fear, instability, and loss of innocent lives in many communities.
5. Foreign Influence and Settlement.
Foreign traders used trade routes to penetrate the interior and establish settlements in towns like Tabora and Ujiji.
6. Exploitation of African Resources.
Europeans and Asians exploited African raw materials and labor, leading to unequal trade relations.
7. Collapse of Local Industries.
The influx of foreign manufactured goods led to the decline of traditional African industries such as iron smelting, pottery, and textile making.
TRANS-SAHARAN TRADE.
The Trans-Saharan Trade was a long-distance trade system that connected North Africa with West Africa, stretching across the Sahara Desert.
The trade dates back to 3000–2000 BC, but it became especially important in the 1st century AD.
This growth was due to the introduction of the camel, which revolutionized desert transport and led to the creation of organized trade routes.
Traders traveled in groups called caravans for safety and efficiency.
The trade was sometimes called “dumb trade” because there was no common language between trading groups. Instead, goods were exchanged silently or using signs.
Goods Exchanged.
- From West Africa, traders offered goods such as gold, kola nuts, ivory, bee-wax, slaves, ostrich feathers, and various foodstuffs like grains and millet.
- From North Africa, traders brought mainly salt and animal skins, which were in high demand in the south.
- From Europe and Asia, goods included cotton and silk cloth, swords, guns, metal pans, horses, and Arabic books. These foreign goods were highly valued in African markets.
Main Trade Routes.
1. Western Route: This route started in Sijilmasa and Fez in Morocco. It passed through Taghaza, Taodeni, Walata, and Audaghost, finally reaching Kumbi Saleh and Timbuktu.
2. Central Route: Originating from Tunis, it passed through Ghat, Ghamese, Kano, Gao, and extended into Hausaland.
3. Eastern Route: This route began from Tripoli and Marzuq, moving through Bilma and connecting to other southern trading centers.
Factors that Led to the Growth of the Trans-Saharan Trade.
The Trans-Saharan trade grew and thrived over many centuries due to several important social, economic, political, and geographical factors. Below are the key reasons that contributed to its growth:
1. Political Stability in the Region.
Both North Africa and Western Sudan were politically stable, especially under strong rulers like Sundiata Keita and Mansa Musa. These leaders collected taxes, provided security, and organized guides for caravans along the trade routes. This stability made long-distance trade safe and attractive to many merchants up to the end of the 15th century.
2. Availability of Valuable Goods in Western Sudan.
Western Sudan was rich in commodities that were highly desired by traders from North Africa, Europe, and Asia. These included:
Gold, ivory, and slaves for export,
In return, they received goods like cloth, guns, horses, and Arabic books.
The surplus production of items such as kola nuts, hides, and gold in Western Sudan, and salt from Taghaza, ensured a steady supply for trade. This economic advantage fueled the trade’s growth.
3. Trust and Honesty Among Traders.
There was a strong sense of mutual trust between Berber traders from North Africa and West African traders. This honesty and mutual respect meant goods could be exchanged without fear of theft or conflict, encouraging long-term trade relationships.
4. Use of Camels for Transport.
The introduction of camels, known as the "ships of the desert," played a critical role. Camels:
- Carried heavy loads over long distances.
- Survived without water for many days.
- Withstood the harsh desert environment.
This made trade across the Sahara more efficient and reliable than relying on human or horse porters.
5. Favorable Geography and Climate.
The geographical location of Western Sudan and its climate supported the production of important goods like kola nuts and foodstuffs. The savannah and Sahel regions had short grassland rather than dense forests, making the land easier to travel across, both for traders and their caravans.
6. Invention of a Medium of Exchange.
Originally, the trade operated on silent barter due to language barriers. Over time, the introduction of cowrie shells as a form of money made trade transactions easier and faster, helping trade to expand.
7. Availability of Capital from Northern Traders.
Berber traders from the North often provided capital and financial support to traders crossing the desert. This investment helped many to take part in the trade and expand their business.
8. Removal of Language Barrier.
As trade expanded, Arabic became the common language of trade. This helped solve communication problems between traders from different regions, making negotiations and transactions smoother.
9. Lack of Coastal Competition.
During this time, West African coastal areas were not frequently visited by foreign ships. This meant that goods from the forest zones (like kola nuts and slaves) could only be traded through the Trans-Saharan routes, giving the desert trade a monopoly.
10. Scarcity of Valuable Commodities.
The high demand for scarce resources like gold and salt on both sides of the Sahara increased trade. Salt, for instance, was essential for preserving food, and gold was needed for currency and ornaments.
11. Introduction of Horses.
Horses were introduced from North Africa and became essential for military conquests and expansion of empires like Ghana and Mali. This helped protect trade routes and secure important trading centers.
Effects of the Trans-Saharan Trade in Africa.
The Trans-Saharan trade had wide-ranging impacts on the social, political, economic, and cultural life of African societies, especially in North and West Africa.
Positive Effects.
1. Rise of Powerful Empires.
The trade contributed to the growth of great African empires such as Ghana, Mali, and Songhai, which controlled trade routes and gained wealth through taxes and tribute.
2. Development of Agriculture.
The introduction of new goods and increased wealth led to improved farming techniques, use of iron tools, and expansion of agricultural activities to support growing urban populations.
3. Spread of Islam and Arabic Culture.
The trade brought Arab scholars, traders, and Islamic missionaries to West Africa. As a result, Islam spread widely, and Arabic became the language of education, religion, and administration in many towns.
4. Formation of Mixed Races.
Continuous interaction and intermarriage between North African Arabs and local West Africans led to the emergence of mixed-race communities, such as the Afro-Arabs or half-castes.
5. Growth of Towns and Cities.
Major trade centers such as Timbuktu, Jenne, Gao, and Walata flourished. These became hubs for commerce, religion, and learning, some even hosting great universities and libraries.
The Decline of the Trans-Saharan Trade.
By the second half of the 19th century, the Trans-Saharan trade began to lose its significance. Several factors led to its decline:
1. Environmental and Geographical Challenges like;
- Strong desert winds and sandstorms made desert travel dangerous.
- Unclear routes caused many traders to get lost and die from thirst or starvation.
- Deadly desert creatures like poisonous snakes and scorpions posed serious threats.
- Extreme temperatures, hot days and freezing nights, were unbearable for many.
- Shortage of water due to drying oases made long journeys difficult.
2. Security Issues.
Desert robbers attacked caravans, stealing goods and killing traders.
This made trade increasingly risky and discouraged participation.
3. Communication Difficulties.
Early trade was complicated by language barriers, forcing traders to use the silent barter system. Even as Arabic spread, communication challenges remained a hindrance.
4. Economic Competition and Changing Trade Routes.
The rise of Trans-Atlantic trade in the 15th and 16th centuries shifted attention to the West African coast, where European traders offered faster and more direct access to goods.
Salt and gold from other parts of the world (e.g., America and Zimbabwe via Sofala) began to compete with West African products, ending the region’s monopoly.
The Portuguese and other Europeans preferred coastal trade routes, bypassing the desert entirely.
5. Abolition of the Slave Trade.
Slaves were a major item in the Trans-Saharan trade. When slave trade was abolished, one of the key pillars of the trade disappeared, accelerating its decline.
6. Wars and Political Instability.
Wars such as the Moroccan invasion of Western Sudan in 1591 and conflicts between Muslims and Christians disrupted trade networks.
The Moroccan attack on Wangara disrupted gold production and weakened West African trade control.
Final Collapse,
By the 16th century, the Trans-Saharan trade had largely collapsed. From this time onward, European powers, dominated the West African coast, marking the beginning of colonial influence and a shift toward maritime trade routes.
Reflection questions:
1. Show the contribution of the Trans-Saharan trade to the rise of pre-colonial African states
2.How did the pre-colonial African societies preserve food without modern facilities?
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