DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL AND POLITICAL SYSTEM

DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL AND POLITICAL SYSTEMS IN PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA.

Before the arrival of colonialism, Africans had their own social and political systems of governance. These systems included the Kinship/Clan Organization, Age Set Organization, and State Organization. However, these indigenous systems were greatly disrupted by colonial rule and external influences in the 19th century.

THE CLAN ORGANIZATION / KINSHIP SYSTEM.

The Clan Organization was a form of social structure where several related families, tracing their lineage to a common ancestor, lived together as a community. These clans were either patrilineal or matrilineal, depending on how lineage and inheritance were traced.

Patrilineal Societies: Clan heritage and lineage were traced through the father. Examples include the Kamba and Kikuyu in Kenya.

Matrilineal Societies: Clan heritage was traced through the mother. Examples include the Ngindo, Zaramo, Makua, and Matumbi in Tanzania.

The primary economic activity in these communities was agriculture, and leadership was vested in a clan head.

FUNCTIONS OF THE CLAN HEAD.

The clan head played vital roles in maintaining order and tradition within the clan. His functions included:

1. Distributing land among clan members.

2. Preserving the clan’s traditions and customs.

3. Protecting and managing clan-owned land.

4. Settling disputes and resolving conflicts.

5. Arranging marriages, such as finding wives for boys and husbands for girls.

TYPES OF CLAN ORGANIZATIONS IN AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES.

There were two main types of clan organizations practiced in agricultural communities:

1. Matrilineal Clan Organization.

In a matrilineal society, the husband would move into the wife’s family, and the children would belong to the mother’s clan. All important decisions regarding children were made by the maternal uncles, the brothers of the mother.

Examples of matrilineal societies include:

The Makonde, Makua, Mwera, and Yao of Tanzania and,

The Kamba of Kenya.

2. Patrilineal Clan Organization.

In a patrilineal society, clan heritage was traced through the father. Children took their father’s name and belonged to his clan. The husband was expected to pay a bride price, often in the form of cattle or goats, which also served as a measure of wealth.

This system emphasized inheritance, land ownership, and family continuity through the male line.

By the 18th and 19th centuries, many clan-based societies began to evolve. Several clans came under the leadership of one powerful figure, leading to the formation of chieftainships. This marked a shift towards more centralized and hierarchical political systems in some African communities.

AGE SET ORGANIZATION IN PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA.

Age Set Organization was a type of socio-political system based on age and sex, commonly found in pastoral societies. Membership in society required individuals to undergo specific rites of passage and fulfill set responsibilities appropriate to their age group.

This system was especially suited to harsh environments like arid and semi-arid regions, where poor soil limited agricultural productivity, making animal husbandry the main economic activity.

Examples of Age Set Societies:

• The Maasai and Nyakyusa of East Africa.

• The Hausa of West Africa.

• The Khoikhoi of Southern Africa.

These societies organized their members into age-based groups, with each group assigned specific roles and responsibilities. These divisions were usually formalized through initiation ceremonies.

AGE GROUPS AND THEIR RESPONSIBILITIES.

1. Children (0–8 years). They were regarded as non-producers.

• Not directly involved in economic production.

• Dependent on others for care and guidance.

2. Youth (8–18 years). They were responsible for grazing animals, rearing young livestock, and milking cattle.

• They assisted by women in these tasks.

• They  acted as training stage for adulthood responsibilities.

3. Moran (Warrior Class, 18–35 years).

These were the defenders and fighters of the community.

Considered as the energetic group between youth and elders.

Main Duties of the Morans:

i. To protect the society as trained warriors.

ii. To guard livestock from wild animals and raiders.

iii. To raid neighboring communities to increase livestock.

iv. To migrate with herds in search of water and pastures.

4. Laibons (Elders, 40 years and above).

The Laibons were respected elders and spiritual leaders in the society. They were categorized into:

• Junior Elders.

• Senior Elders.

Though no longer active in production, their wisdom, experience, and leadership were vital to the functioning of the community.

Responsibilities of Elders (Laibons):

• To manage livestock and communal property.

• To enforce societal norms and ethics.

• To oversee spiritual and political matters.

• To advise and counsel younger members.

• To resolve disputes and maintain peace.

• They were considered as retired producers, their knowledge remained a as a valuable community asset.

STATE ORGANIZATION IN PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA.

What is a State?

A state is a politically organized community that occupies a specific territory and operates under its own independent government. It is free from external control and possesses authority over its people and resources.

In East Africa, the formation of states began to accelerate in the 18th century A.D., largely due to the spread of agricultural communities, increased population, and advances in science and technology.

Origins of State Formation.

Some clans possessed better land, more labor, or superior iron-working skills, which allowed them to dominate others. The leader of such dominant clans gradually took over political and spiritual roles. Those who opposed their authority often migrated to new areas. Over time, this dominance laid the foundation for organized states.

Kings and Queens were the heads of these early states.

Village heads, who ruled over several clans, were subordinate to the kings or queens and often held judicial authority within their courts.

GENERAL FACTORS FOR STATE FORMATION.

1. Good Leadership.

Strong, visionary leaders helped unite and expand communities.

Example: Kabanga of Buganda, who organized and inspired his people.

2. Trade.

Trade, especially Long-Distance Trade, made societies wealthier and stronger.

Access to weapons (e.g., guns from the East African coast) helped Buganda defend and expand its territory.

West African states like Mali, Ghana, and Songhai used metal weapons from North Africa to boost their military power.

3. Favorable Climate and Fertile Soil.

A good climate and fertile land allowed for food surpluses, leading to population growth, which was essential for state building.

Example: Buganda benefited from heavy rainfall and fertile soils.

4. Conquest.

Stronger states expanded by conquering weaker neighbors.

Example: Buganda conquered Bunyoro in the interlacustrine region.

5. Availability of Iron.

Iron technology helped increase agricultural productivity and provided weapons for war, strengthening the power of states.

6. Migration

Migrants introduced new skills, tools, and technologies, which helped strengthen and expand existing communities and states.

7. Size of the Kingdom

Smaller kingdoms (e.g., Buganda and Ghana) were easier to manage, defend, and administer.

Larger kingdoms (like Bunyoro) faced difficulties in centralized control and administration.

THE WESTERN SUDANIC STATES.

The Western Sudanic States were among the earliest and most powerful states in West Africa, located between the Sahara Desert to the north and the forest region to the south. These states thrived due to their strategic location and economic activities.

Major Western Sudanic States:

• Ghana Empire.

• Mali Empire.

• Songhai Empire.

• Kanem-Bornu Empire.

GENERAL FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF WESTERN SUDANIC STATES.

1. Good Geographical Location.

Positioned between the Sahara and forest regions, they served as important trade centers.

2. Iron Technology.

Enabled better farming tools and weapons for defense and conquest.

3. Population Growth.

A growing population provided labor for agriculture, mining, and trade.

4. Development of Local Industries.

Blacksmithing, weaving, and other crafts supported local economies.

5. Taxation.

Rulers collected taxes from traders and citizens, increasing state revenue.

6. Trans-Saharan Trade.

Trade in gold, salt, and slaves connected the region with North Africa and beyond.

7. Availability of Valuable Goods.

Especially gold, which attracted Arab and Berber traders.

8. Centralized Government.

Effective systems of administration helped maintain order and unity.

9. Capable Leadership.

Strong and visionary rulers promoted expansion and prosperity.

10. Strong Army.

Well-equipped and disciplined armies protected trade routes and expanded territory.

GHANA EMPIRE.

The name Ghana was originally the title of the king, which later came to represent the empire itself.

By the 5th century A.D., Ghana had grown into a powerful state.

It had two main towns: one inhabited by Muslims and the other by non-Muslims (Pagans).

The Soninke people were the dominant ethnic group.

The capital city was Kumbi Saleh.

One of its most famous rulers was Tunka Manin.

FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF THE GHANA EMPIRE.

1. Agricultural Activities.

Supported the population and allowed food surplus.

2. Availability of Gold.

Ghana controlled major gold mines, making it a wealthy empire.

3. Trans-Saharan Trade.

Trade in gold and salt boosted its economy.

4. Good Leadership and Government.

Efficient governance promoted peace and prosperity.

5. Common Language.

The use of the Soninke language united the people culturally and politically.

FACTORS FOR THE DECLINE OF THE GHANA EMPIRE.

• Almoravid Invasions (constant attacks by Muslim warriors from North Africa).

• Disunity and Internal Conflicts.

• Jihad Wars that disrupted trade and stability.

• Weak Succession System, leading to political instability.

• Emergence of Rival Kingdoms, especially the rise of Mali Empire.

Note:

The decline of the Ghana Empire in the 12th century opened the way for the rise of the Mali Empire, which inherited and expanded Ghana’s trade networks and political systems.

MALI EMPIRE.

The Mali Empire emerged in the early 13th century after the fall of the Ghana Empire. This followed a conflict between King Samangwa of Ghana and Prince Sundiata Keita of Kangaba. Sundiata defeated Ghana and brought it under his control, marking the beginning of the powerful Mali Empire.

The capital of Mali was Niani.

The title of the rulers was Mansa, meaning king or emperor.

Sundiata Keita was the founder and first great ruler of Mali.

FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF THE MALI EMPIRE.

1. The Fall of the Ghana Empire.

Created a power vacuum that Mali filled.

2. Control of Gold Fields (Bure). Mali controlled the rich gold mines of Bure, boosting wealth and trade.

3. Strong Army. Helped in expanding territory and maintaining internal order.

4. Agricultural Activities. Fertile lands supported food production and population growth.

5. Trans-Saharan Trade. Trade in gold, salt, and other goods brought wealth and foreign connections.

6. Strong Leadership. Sundiata Keita laid a strong foundation; later rulers like Mansa Musa (Kan Kan Musa) expanded the empire and increased its global reputation.

7. Promotion of Islamic Faith. Islam contributed to education, trade, and the building of libraries and universities, especially in Timbuktu.

8. Efficient Political System. Mali was divided into provinces with local governors, allowing effective governance.

DECLINE OF THE MALI EMPIRE.

1. Weak Leadership. After the death of Mansa Mahmud IV, the empire suffered from poor governance.

2. Overexpansion. The empire became too vast to control efficiently.

3. Internal Divisions. The empire split into three rival factions, leading to civil wars and loss of unity.

4. External Attacks. Invasions by groups like the Tuaregs weakened the empire.

5. Civil Wars. Constant internal conflicts drained resources and divided the population.

 Note:

The decline of the Mali Empire paved the way for the rise of the Songhai Empire, which went on to become the most powerful empire in West Africa in the 15th and 16th centuries.

SONGHAI EMPIRE.

The Songhai Empire rose to prominence in the late 15th century, originating from the Gao Kingdom. Under the leadership of Sunni Ali, Songhai conquered neighboring states and grew into the largest and most powerful empire in West African history.

The capital city was Gao, established around the 11th century, and remained the political and commercial center of the empire.

Notable rulers of Songhai included:

• Sunni Ali – founder and military strategist.

• Askia Muhammad (Askia the Great) – known for administrative reforms and support of Islam.

• Askia Daud – under whom the empire reached its peak.

FACTORS FOR THE GROWTH OF THE SONGHAI EMPIRE.

1. Agricultural Activities.

The fertile lands along the Niger River supported productive farming and population growth.

2. Strong Army.

A well-trained and disciplined army enabled territorial expansion and protection of trade routes.

3. Trans-Saharan Trade.

Trade in gold, salt, and other goods enriched the empire and connected it to North Africa.

4. Good Administration.

Askia Muhammad introduced provinces, appointed governors, and established Islamic courts and schools.

5. Efficient Taxation System.

Taxes were levied on trade, agriculture, and the people, increasing state revenue.

6. Adoption of Islam.

Islam played a key role in administration, law, and education, especially in cities like Timbuktu and Gao.

DECLINE OF THE SONGHAI EMPIRE.

1. Weak Leadership after Askia Daud.

Successors lacked the strength and vision to maintain the empire’s stability.

2. Moroccan Invasion (1591).

The Moroccan army, equipped with firearms, defeated the Songhai in the Battle of Tondibi, leading to the collapse of the empire.

3. Overexpansion.

The vast size of the empire made it difficult to govern effectively.

4. Religious Conflicts.

Tensions between Islamic reformers and followers of traditional African religions led to internal instability.

5. Shift in Trade Routes.

The rise of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade and the shift of trade towards the Atlantic coast reduced the importance of trans-Saharan trade routes, weakening Songhai’s economic base.

Note:

The fall of the Songhai Empire in the late 16th century marked the end of the great empires of the Western Sudan, as attention shifted to coastal trade and European influence grew in West Africa.

FOREST STATES: 

The Benin Empire.

The Benin Empire was a powerful West African state located in the forest region and was initially a small state inhabited by the Edo-speaking people.

The highest authority in the early Benin state were chiefs known as Ogiso, meaning "Kings of the Sky".

The administrative center of the empire was Ubinu, later known as Benin City.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND.

Between 1388 and 1431, a series of civil wars deeply divided the Edo people. After the death of the last Ogiso, his son Prince Ekaladerhan went into exile and settled in Ile-Ife. When the Edo people later called for his return to lead them, he sent his son, Prince Oranmiyan, who became the new ruler.

This marked the beginning of a new royal dynasty in Benin.

EXPANSION INTO A CITY-STATE EMPIRE.

By the 15th century, under the leadership of Oba Ewuare the Great, Benin transformed from a small state into a powerful city-state empire. He reformed the political structure, expanded the territory, and encouraged the development of arts and trade.

REASONS FOR THE RISE OF THE BENIN EMPIRE.

1. Capable Leadership.

Strong rulers, especially Oba Ewuare the Great, played a key role in uniting and expanding the empire.

2. Centralized Government.

A well-organized and efficient political system promoted stability and order.

3. Trade.

Benin engaged in both local and international trade, particularly with Portuguese merchants in the 15th century.

4. Unity.

The unification of the Edo people under a strong monarchy enhanced internal peace and development.

5. Development of Handicraft Industry.

Skilled artisans in bronze, ivory, and wood carving made Benin famous for its advanced craftsmanship, especially the Benin Bronzes.

DECLINE OF THE BENIN EMPIRE.

1. Introduction of the Slave Trade.

Participation in the slave trade disrupted internal stability and weakened traditional structures.

2. Impact of the Trans-Atlantic Trade.

The shift in trade focus from inland to coastal and Atlantic trade routes diminished Benin’s traditional trade networks.

3. Introduction of Firearms.

European firearms contributed to tribal wars and internal conflict, accelerating the empire’s downfall.

Note:

Despite its eventual decline, the Benin Empire left a lasting legacy through its sophisticated governance, urban development, and world-renowned artwork, especially the Benin Bronzes, which are still studied and displayed globally today.

THE EMPIRE OF OYO.

The Oyo Empire emerged between the late 14th and early 15th centuries (around 1388–1431). It was one of the most powerful Yoruba states in West Africa.

The people of Oyo were descendants of Oranmiyan, a legendary Yoruba leader.

The capital of the empire was Oyo-Ile.

The king was known as the Alafin.

The Bashorun was the head of the army and a powerful political figure, often acting as a check on the Alafin's authority.

REASONS FOR THE RISE OF THE OYO EMPIRE.

1. Organized Political System.

A well-structured government led by capable Alafins ensured stability and expansion.

2. Strong, Disciplined Army.

The Oyo cavalry was especially powerful, giving the empire military superiority.

3. Agricultural Activities.

Fertile land supported farming, which provided food and economic stability.

4. Development of Local Industries.

Industries such as weaving, ironworking, and pottery contributed to self-reliance and trade.

5. Participation in the Slave Trade.

Oyo engaged in the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade, which brought wealth and foreign goods.

6. Tributary Relationship with Dahomey.

Oyo controlled Dahomey as a vassal state, collecting tribute and asserting regional dominance.

DECLINE OF THE OYO EMPIRE.

• Power Struggles: Conflicts between the Alafin and the Bashorun weakened central authority.

• External Conquests: The empire suffered from attacks by the Fulani and the rebellious Dahomey.

• Civil Wars: Internal unrest and rivalry between political factions destabilized the empire.

• Disunity: Lack of cohesion among various provinces and officials led to fragmentation and decline.

THE EMPIRE OF DAHOMEY.

The Dahomey Empire rose in the 18th century and became a dominant power in West Africa after the decline of the Oyo Empire in the 19th century.

The empire was founded by the Fon people.

The capital was Abomey, where the Royal Palaces were built by leaders such as King Agaja and Houegbadja.

REASONS FOR THE RISE OF THE DAHOMEY EMPIRE.

1. Centralized and Powerful Monarchy.

The king had strong authority over political and military matters.

2. Effective Succession System.

A clear system of royal succession prevented power struggles and ensured continuity.

3. Strong Army.

Dahomey had a disciplined military force, including the famous female warriors known as the Dahomey Amazons.

4. Good Leadership.

Notable leaders like King Gezo and King Agaja expanded the empire and reformed governance.

5. Control of the Slave Trade.

Dahomey became a major player in the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade, which brought wealth and firearms.

DECLINE OF THE DAHOMEY EMPIRE.

Colonial Invasion:

Dahomey fell under French colonial rule in the late 19th century, marking the end of its independence.

The empire was defeated after several military confrontations with the French army, and was officially annexed into French West Africa.

ASANTE (ASHANTI) EMPIRE.

The Asante Empire, also known as the Ashanti Empire, was formed from the unification of several Akan states in the Kumasi region of present-day Ghana.

The people of Asante were the Akan, ruled by the Oyoko clan.

The founding king was Obiri Yeboa, but Osei Tutu, his successor, is recognized as the main founder and builder of the empire.

The capital city was Kumasi.

The symbol of unity was the Golden Stool, believed to contain the soul of the Asante nation.

The ruler of the empire was known as the Asantehene.

FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF THE ASANTE EMPIRE.

1. Agricultural Activities.

Fertile lands supported farming, providing food and economic stability.

2. Development of Local Industries.

Skilled artisans produced textiles, gold ornaments, and iron tools that boosted trade.

3. Capable Leadership.

Leaders like Osei Tutu and his spiritual advisor Okomfo Anokye united the Asante states and established strong institutions.

4. Well-Organized Political System.

The empire had a centralized government, with Kumasi as the administrative hub and subordinate chiefs across the region.

5. Trade.

The Asante benefited from long-distance trade, particularly in gold, kola nuts, and slaves, which brought wealth and weapons.

DECLINE OF THE ASANTE EMPIRE.

The arrival of Europeans, especially the British, disrupted the Asante economy and political independence.

Conflicts, including the Anglo-Asante wars, and the eventual colonization by the British in the late 19th century led to the collapse of the empire.

CENTRALIZED STATES OF CENTRAL AFRICA.

KONGO EMPIRE.

The Kongo Empire was a powerful and centralized African kingdom established in the 14th century in present-day Angola and the Democratic Republic of Congo.

The ruler held the title of Manikongo (also Mwekongo), meaning "Lord of Kongo".

The capital city was Mbaza (later renamed São Salvador by the Portuguese).

FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF THE KONGO EMPIRE.

1. Technological Development.

Mastery of iron technology allowed for efficient farming and superior weapons.

2. Trade.

The Kongo traded in ivory, copper, textiles, and later slaves, both regionally and with the Portuguese.

3. Taxation.

A structured tax system supported the royal court and administrative functions.

4. Local Industries.

Artisans produced tools, crafts, and fabrics, enhancing economic self-reliance.

5. Traditional Leadership and Belief Systems.

The kingdom was strongly rooted in spiritual power, with leaders seen as having divine or magical authority.

DECLINE OF THE KONGO EMPIRE.

1. Arrival of the Portuguese.

Initially allies, the Portuguese gradually undermined Kongo's sovereignty.

2. Slave Trade.

The empire became deeply involved in the Atlantic slave trade, leading to internal instability and depopulation.

3. Weak Leadership.

After Manikongo Mingo Mkuwa, who established relations with Portugal, leadership weakened.

His son Mzingo Mbemba, who was baptized Don Afonso I, became heavily influenced by the Portuguese and was viewed as a puppet, sparking civil wars.

MWENEMUTAPA KINGDOM.

The Mwenemutapa Kingdom (also known as the Mutapa Empire) was established in the 15th century under the leadership of Mutota, a ruler from the Karanga people of the Zimbabwe plateau.

Mutota conquered the Tonga and Torura peoples in the Zambezi Valley and established the foundation of the kingdom.

He took the title Mwenemutapa, meaning "Master of the Conquered Lands".

Mutota served as the political, military, and religious leader of the kingdom.

He died in 1450, and his son Matope succeeded him.

After Matope’s death in 1480, leadership passed to Changamire in 1490.

REASONS FOR THE RISE OF THE MWENEMUTAPA KINGDOM.

1. Agricultural Activities.

Fertile lands supported farming and food security.

2. Strong Leadership.

Leaders like Mutota and Matope were skilled in expansion, diplomacy, and governance.

3. Availability of Valuable Resources.

The kingdom had access to gold, copper, and iron, which boosted its economy.

4. Control of Trade Routes and Centers.

The Mwenemutapa controlled important trading towns and trade routes linking the interior with the East African coast.

REASONS FOR THE DECLINE OF THE MWENEMUTAPA KINGDOM.

1. Portuguese Invasion and Economic Control.

The arrival of the Portuguese led to the monopoly of the gold trade, undermining the kingdom's economy.

2. Internal Division.

The kingdom was split into two rival states: Mutapa and Rozvi (Ruzwi), weakening central control.

3. Civil War and Rebellion.

After Matope’s death, his young son Nyahuma inherited the throne. His youth and inexperience caused chiefs to rebel, leading to civil conflict and the weakening of royal power.

THE LUBA STATE.

The Luba State was located in Central Africa, between the tributaries of the Congo River. It was formed by the Songeye people, who migrated from Katanga.

The state emerged through the unification of different groups, particularly the Kaniok people.

A significant moment in its formation was the intermarriage between Ilungambila (a notable leader) and a woman from the Kangolo clan.

This union produced a royal line, leading to the rise of Kalala Ilunga, the founder of the Luba dynasty.

The capital city of Luba was Munza.

REASONS FOR THE RISE OF THE LUBA STATE.

1. Centralized Administration.

The kingdom had a strong political structure with the central authority controlling war, external relations, and trade.

2. Development of Trade.

Trade in goods like salt, iron tools, and ivory connected Luba with neighboring regions.

3. Agricultural Activities.

Fertile land supported food production and population growth.

4. Iron Technology.

The use of iron tools and weapons enhanced agriculture, warfare, and craftsmanship.

THE LUNDA STATE.

The Lunda State emerged in Central Africa, with its center located in the Nkala River Valley. It was closely linked to the Luba State both politically and culturally.

The rulers of Lunda took the title Mwanta (or Mwanta Yaav).

The state initially began as a small village community, gradually growing into a kingdom.

The first local ruler was called Mwantagaand.

A significant turning point occurred when Ilunga Tshibinda (a prince from the Luba State) married a local Lunda princess.

Their son later became the first paramount ruler of the unified Lunda Kingdom, mixing Luba political ideas with local traditions.

FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF THE LUNDA STATE.

1. Iron Technology.

Enabled the production of better tools and weapons, supporting farming, trade, and military strength.

2. Development of Local Industries.

Skilled artisans produced pottery, iron tools, and woven goods, strengthening the local economy.

3. Agricultural Activities.

The fertile land supported crop cultivation, leading to food surplus and population growth.

4. Good Leadership.

Capable rulers like Mwanta Yaav I expanded and strengthened the state through diplomacy and military strategy.

5. Trade.

The Lunda State became an important trade link between East and West Africa, dealing in ivory, salt, iron goods, and later slaves.

DECLINE OF THE LUNDA STATE.

The arrival of European traders and colonizers in the 19th century disrupted trade networks and introduced foreign control, weakening the state.

Increased involvement in the slave trade and internal power struggles contributed to its decline.