AFRICAN NATIONALISM AND DECOLONIZATION PROCESS.
NATIONALISM AND DECOLONIZATION PROCESS IN AFRICA
MEANING OF NATIONALISM
Nationalism is the feeling of national pride by people who share similar cultural background and a desire to be free from external interference.
AFRICAN NATIONALISM
It was a desire of Africans to unite and terminate/uproot all forms of foreign occupation and control from their land.
THE PROCESS OF DECOLONIZATION
Decolonization means uprooting or removing completely, colonial rule from African land.
African nationalism and decolonization developed gradually in stages.
1. Early Resistance and Protest (1880 - 1914)
These were mostly armed and traditional in character.
Early resistances were led by chiefs, kings and spiritual leaders.
Characteristics
- Defense of land, culture and political independence.
- Poor coordination and inferior weapons.
Examples;
Abushiri, Bwana Heri and Omar Makunganya resistances, Hehe resistance, Maji Maji Rebellion (Tanganyika, 1905–1907), Nandi resistance, Shona–Ndebele Chimurenga (Zimbabwe),
Samori Touré’s resistance (West Africa) and
Menelik II defeating Italy at Adwa (Ethiopia, 1896)
African resistances were caused by:
- Forced labour in Plantations and mines.
- Land allienation: Europeans forcefully annexed African land.
- Heavy taxation including head and hut taxes.
- Racism and social segragation.
- Loss of control over long distance trade.
- Colonial oppression including poor working conditions, flogging and whipping.
Most resistances were defeated, leading to full colonial control. However, they laid foundation for future struggles for freedom.
Importance/Significance of early forms of Nationalism.
- Increased awareness among Africans against colonial exploitation and oppression.
- Created unity among different ethnic groups to fight colonial intrusion, for instance majimaji uprising.
- Created courage, removing fear and inferiority complex to fight colonial injustices.
- Forced Europeans to change oppressive systems, For instance Germans in Tanganyika reduced exploitation and forced cotton cultivation after Maji maji.
2. Elite / Cultural Nationalism (1914–1945)
These were groups formed by educated Africans (teachers, clerks and missionaries’ graduates) and peasants to demand and defend their rights.
It focused on cultural pride and racial equality but not immediate independence.
Characteristics
- Formation of Social and welfare associations and cultural groups.
- Use of newspapers, petitions, and meetings.
- Demands for reforms instead of independence.
Examples;
- Aborigines’ Rights Protection Society (Gold Coast).
- Young Kikuyu Association (Kenya).
- African National Congress (ANC, South Africa).
- Negritude movement (Francophone Africa).
Associations raised political awareness and unity among Africans.
3. Mass Nationalism (1945–1960)
Mass Nationalism was broad-based movements involving peasants, workers, and youth through political parties with a clear demand for self-government and independence.
Characteristics
- Formation of political parties.
- Use of strikes, boycotts, demonstrations.
- Charismatic leaders emerged.
Examples;
- CPP under Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana).
- TANU under Julius Nyerere (Tanganyika).
- KANU under Jomo Kenyatta (Kenya).
- FLN (Algeria).
4. Militant / Armed Nationalism/ Armed Struggle (1950s–1970s)
Armed struggle occurred where colonial powers resisted peaceful change.
As a result, Africans resorted to Armed struggle and guerrilla warfare.
Characteristics
- Use of liberation armies.
- External support from socialist countries.
- Long and violent conflicts.
- Mau Mau Movement (Kenya).
- Algerian War of Independence (1954–1962).
- FRELIMO (Mozambique).
- MPLA (Angola).
- ZANU/ZAPU (Zimbabwe).
Independence in these colonies was achieved after prolonged struggle.
AFRICAN SOCIAL AND WELFARE ASSOCIATIONS IN THE DECOLONISATION PROCESS
Social and welfare associations were organizations or groups formed by Africans during colonial period to promote social, economic and cultural welfare of their members.
Welfare Associations included;
- Peasant cooperatives
- Independent Churches
- Trade Unions/Civil servant Associations
Although they were not initially political, they addressed issues like discrimination, poor working conditions, land alienation, low wages and lack of education.
PEASANT COOPERATIVES
Peasant cooperatives and organizations were established by farmers to oppose land allienation and demand subsidies and better prices for their cash crops.
Peasant cooperatives in Tanganyika included;
- Kilimanjaro Native cooperative union (KNCU),
- Usambara Native growers, and
- Bukoba cooperative union.
INDEPENDENT CHURCH MOVEMENTS
Independent Churches were autonomous and free African formed churches, to challenge European church leadership and teachings.
Independent churches did not only preach faith, they also addressed social, political and economic exploitation by colonialists.
Independent churches were also against European missionaries, white masters and colonial government officials who were agents of imperialism.
Examples independent church movements included;
- The Watch Tower Church Movement under Charles Domingo, operated in Malawi from 1906,
- Lumpa Church in 1953 under Lenshina Mulenga.
- Abamalaki church in Uganda.
- Church of God in Tanganyika.
- Gikuyu Orthodox Church in Kenya.
Independent church movements created and implanted spirit of unity, solidarity and awareness, encouraging Africans to oppose colonial evils.
ROLES OF INDEPENDENT CHURCH MOVEMENTS IN AFRICAN DECOLONISATION PROCESS
1. Acted as audience to receive message of freedom during church services.
Churches provided a forum for Africans to expressed ideas and feelings, about evils of colonialism and European Christianity.
2. Created unity among Africans under same faith to fight for Africans rights.
3. Establishment of independent schools under African management, reducing illiterate rates.
PROBLEMS FACING INDEPENDENT CHURCH MOVEMENTS
1. Conflicts amongst church leaders over leadership positions. Misunderstandings built distrust and division in Churches.
2. Shortage trained professionals. Most of church members were illiterate, because of limited access to colonial education.
It was difficult to mobilize illiterates to oppose political oppression.
3. Financial problem.
Churches depended on the little amount of money from tithing and charity, from Africans cheap labour earning bachelor wages in colonial plantation, infrastructure construction and mines.
TRADE UNIONS OR CIVIL SERVANTS ASSOCIATIONS.
Trade Unions were colonial government workers groups, formed to oppose poor working conditions, discrimination, colonial exploitation and demand better salaries.
Colonial government workers organized strikes and boycotts against colonial exploitation, creating awareness and consciousness amongst colonial workforce.
Some of these associations included;
- Railway African Association in Tanganyika.
- Tanganyika Territory Civil Servants Association (TTCSA) under Martin Kayamba as its founder.
- Industrial and commerce union in Southern Rhodesia.
Reasons for the rise of Social and wefare associations.
1. Inspiration from First World War ex-soldiers
Ex soldiers had gained exposure on global politics and human rights. They awakened Africans to form associations to demand their rights.
2. Role of elites, who had access to colonial education.
3. Increased olonial exploitation.
Heavy taxation, low prices of cash crops and poor working conditions, forced Africans to form associations to fight for their demands.
4. Increased awareness among urban dwellers.
They formed associations based on ethnic backgrounds, religion and work.
GENERAL CONTRIBUTION/ROLES OR STRENGTHS OF SOCIAL AND WELLFARE ASSOCIATIONS IN DECOLONIZATION PROCESS
1. Demanded good working and living conditions for workers through better salaries and wages.
2. Raised political awareness to African.
Meetings were forums to discuss evils of colonialism like racial descrimination, forced taxation, forced labor and land alienation.
3. They organized protests and demonstrations against colonial authorities.
On 28 February 1948, African ex-servicemen who had fought for Britain in World War II marched in Accra to present a petition about unpaid benefits and racial discrimination.
Colonial police opened fire, killing three veterans. The incident triggered riots across Ghana insipiring struggle for freedom.
4. Mobilized members to raise funds to meet various financial needs.
For example, Kikuyu Central Association raised funds and sent Jomo Kenyatta to London to present their grievances against colonial government.
5. Some welfare associations in Africa published journals which acted as a communication channel for reaching out supporters.
The Nigerian Youth Movement used newspapers and pamphlets to mobilize educated Africans in Lagos.
Nnamdi Azikiwe founded the West African Pilot in 1937.
6. Some welfare's infrastructure such as offices, came to be used by nationalist leaders to run and organize freedom movements.
Tanganyika African Association 1929 (TAA) offices, came to be used by TANU (Tanganyika African National Union 1954) to regain indepenfence of Tanganyika in 1961.
WEAKNESSES OR PROBLEMS FACING SOCIAL AND WELLFARE ASSOCIATIONS
1. Shortage of funds.
Majority of members were peasants and cheap labours. They struggled to contribute annual membership fees.
2. Colonial suppression.
Kikuyu Central Association (KCA) was banned in 1940 by British colonial government. It was not allowed to run its activities within Kenya.
3. Imprisonment and assassination of members.
During suppression of strikes and demonstrations, members were arrested, detained and killed in the Gold coast in 1948.
4. Inadequate infrastructure to organize and run association activities.
Offices were few and in poor condition. Roads were limited to production areas, making movements to interior difficult.
5. Disunity among members.
Members had different religious and ethnic backgrounds, hindering effective cooperation.
6. Illiteracy among members.
Most Africans were illiterate, uneducated and unaware of their rights, causing difficulty in communicating through journals and newspapers.
FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF AFRICAN MASS NATIONALISM
Factors for the rise of mass African nationalism are categorized into two; INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL factors.
INTERNAL FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF MASS NATIONALISM
Internal factors are reasons from within Africa, that ignited and raised awareness on evils of colonialism.
1. Intensive colonial exploitation in Africa.
After establishing colonial economies in Africa, colonialists introduced mechanisms of exploitation.
Germans For example, used harsh colonial apparatus like colonial Police, SILABU and Courts to force Tanganyikans to work in colonial projects including mines and plantations.
Colonial states introduced forced land alienation, corporal punishment, heavy taxation and low wages to Africans sowing hatred towards the government.
Pain from colonial humiliation ignited war to end evils of colonialism.
2. Role played by African elites.
Colonial education created conscious African elites, who later organized and mobilized Africans to demand sovereignty.
Such elites included first President of Kenya-Jomo Kenyatta, President of Tanganyika -Mwalimu Julius K. Nyerere, first President of Ghana - Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, first President of Zimbabwe - Robert Gabriel Mugabe and first President of South African majority government - Nelson Mandela.
3. Role played by Welfare Associations, including Peasant cooperatives and Trade unions.
Africans established Trade Unions/civil servants associations associations to end poor working conditions, discrimination and colonial exploitation.
Trade Unions organized strikes and boycotts against colonial exploitation, creating awareness and consciousness amongst colonial workers.
Some of associations included;
- Railway African Association in Tanganyika.
- Tanganyika Territory Civil Servants Association (TTCSA) under Martin Kayamba as its founder.
- The industrial and commerce union in Southern Rhodesia.
Peasant cooperatives and organizations were established by farmers, to demand good and fair prices for their cash crops.
These included;
- Kilimanjaro Native cooperative union (KNCU),
- Usambara Native growers, and
- Bukoba cooperative union.
Peasant cooperatives awakened Africans to demand their rights.
4. Independence of Ghana on 6th March 1957.
Ghana became first African British colony to dismantle colonial chains under leadership of late Kwame Nkrumah.
Independence of Ghana became a point of reference to many African states, still under colonialism by then.
Ghana independence inspired and created awareness and courage to the rest of African states under colonialism.
Ghana under Kwame Nkrumah supported the liberation of other African states like Malawi and South Africa, steering African nationalism.
5. Italo Ethiopian crisis/conflict.
Up to mid 1930s, Ethiopia was one of uncolonized African states.
Attempt to establish colonial domination by the Italians was militarily crushed in 1896 at the battle of Adwa.
Battle of Adwa raised strong emotion throughout Africa, Asia and black people in Diaspora.
African states were inspired by Ethiopian success, realizing it was possible to defeat Europeans.
6. Role played by mass media.
Newspapers like Sauti ya TANU in Tanganyika, The pilot and The Comet in Nigeria, spread awareness among Africans in rural and urban areas.
EXTERNAL FACTORS FOR THE RISE OF AFRICAN NATIONALISM
1. Impact of Second World War (WW II) 1939-1945.
- WWII weakened the economic and military strengths of capitalist powers.
- WWII widened political understanding of African soldiers who fought on the side of their colonial masters.
Ex-Soldiers came to realize that true meaning of freedom was self governance and democracy.
WWII Veterans had acquired new fighting techniques and learned to organize and mobilize armies. When they returned to Africa, they opposed colonial rule.
Some became active and front liners in forming nationalistic and patriotic political parties to fight for independence.
Examples of ex-soldiers in Kenya were; Dedan Kimath, Jonathan Okwiriri who became the President of the Young Kavirondo Association, General China(waruhiu Itote) and Joseph Kangethe.
2. Role played by Pan-Africanism.
Pan-Africanism was a movement of all black people around the world to come together against all forms of foreign exploitation.
Pan Africanists like William Du Bois, Marcus Garvey and Kwame Nkrumah held different Pan-African congresses, to spread awareness to black people to reject all kinds of inferiority against whites.
Most successful congress was fifth conference, which took place on 15th October 1945 in Manchester.
Manchester conference was attended by young African students pursuing studies abroad, including Dr. Namndi Azikiwe (Nigeria), Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana), Jomo Kenyatta (Kenya), Peter Abrahams (South Africa) and Kamuzu Banda (Malawi).
Main agenda of the conference was decolonization of African continent. They initiated various political movements while others formed political parties which led their countries to independence.
Dr. Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana formed CPP (Convection Peoples Party) which led Ghana to independence on Sunday 6th March in 1957, while Jomo Kenyatta joined KAU later KANU which led Kenya to independence in 1963.
3. Role played by USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics).
After Russian Revolution in 1917, Russia became a socialist nation opposing all forms of colonialism and exploitation.
USSR supported nationalist movements in African colonies of Angola and Mozambique as a way to oppose and eradicate capitalist exploitation.
4. Role played United States. (capitalist block).
After World War II, United States emerged as leading capitalist nation in the world. Unlike European powers, the US did not depend on formal colonies for raw materials, instead used trade, investment and economic influence to access resources globally.
US promoted free trade through policies similar to the Open Door Policy, which emphasized equal trading opportunities and open markets.
This enabled US to expand its economic influence and invest in regions such as Africa, replacing direct colonial control with economic dominance.
US campaigned for African independence to open free trade areas to extract raw materials.
5. Contribution from Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) and Bandung Conference of 1955.
Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) was formed in 1961 by countries from Asia, Africa, and Latin America, most of which had experienced colonial rule.
NAM aimed to safeguard political independence and sovereignty of its member states.
NAM was so called because it refused to align itself with either of two Cold War power blocs:
- Capitalist bloc led by United States or
- Socialist bloc led by Soviet Union.
6. Role played by United Nations Organization
UNO was established on 24th October in 1945, to replace the League of Nations.
The charter of the UNO was against colonialism and all forms of colonial exploitation.
To effect this, UNO through its trusteeship council was established, as the guardian to coordinate decolonization of African, Asia and Latin American countries.
7. Independence of India and Pakistan.
Independence of India and Pakistan in 1947 awakened African nations to the spirit of nationalism and struggle for independence.
Successful attainment of self-rule demonstrated that colonial domination could be challenged and defeated.
Independence of Asian countries raised African political consciousness and patriotism, strengthening the hope that freedom was achievable.
8. Bandung Conference of 1955.
Bandung conference was attended by several African countries, including Egypt, Ethiopia, and Libya.
Bandung conference emphasized solidarity, cooperation, and unity among formerly colonized nations. It promoted resistance to imperialism and racial discrimination, encouraging cooperation among Asian and African states.
FORMS OF DECOLONISATION IN AFRICA
Africans employed different means in the struggle for independence. Methods used depended on nature of colonial economy practiced in respective colonies.
For Instance; almost all African settler colonies, regained freedom through barrel of gun because settlers had invested so much in those colonies, making settlers reluctant to grant independence to Africans.
The common forms of struggles were:
1. Constitutional/peaceful means.
Some colonies used peaceful ways including negotiations, dialogues and diplomacy to demand freedom.
Most colonies which attained freedom through diplomacy, were under United Nations Trusteeship committee.
Respective nationalistic leaders went almost annually to UNO Trusteeship council, to plead for freedom of their countries.
Countries employed constitutional means included Ghana 1957, Nigeria 1960 and Tanganyika 1961.
2. Armed struggle/guerilla warfare/ barrel of gun.
Some colonies were liberated by direct wars.
Most of these colonies had many Settlers, like; Congo (1960), Kenya (1963), Angola (1975), Mozambique 1975 and Zimbabwe (1980).
Settlers were not economically prepared to leave behind massive investments they had set up in these colonies.
3. Combinationa of methods
It was a blend of constitutional and armed struggle. Some countries embarked on this method after failure of peaceful means.
South Africa embarked on armed struggle after the Sharpeville Massacre of 21 March 1960, where peaceful nationalist demonstrators were killed by south African Apartheid regime.
Sharpville massacre convinced African nationalists that peaceful protest alone could not end apartheid.
As a result, African National Congress (ANC), under leaders such as Nelson Mandela and Oliver Tambo, formed a military wing known as Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK), meaning “The Spear of the Nation.”
4. Revolutionary means
A revolution is the complete overthrow of an existing system of governance by a group of people who are subjected to it, experiencing mistreatment, exploitation, discrimination, and oppression.
Zanzibar experienced a successful revolution on Sunday, 12 January 1964. Zanzibar revolution completely overthrew Sultanate regime of Sultan Jamshid bin Abdullah, bringing an end to Arab-dominated rule and replacing it with a new revolutionary government.
COUNTRIES THAT REGAINED INDEPENDENCE THROUGH CONSTITUTIONAL OR PEACEFUL MEANS.
Struggle For Independence In Ghana
Ghana, a British colony, was originally called Gold Coast. It was first African colony South of Sahara to regain independence.
Ghana regained independence on 6th March 1957 from British under leadership of Kwame Nkrumah (1909-1972), with nationalistic political party CPP (Convention Peoples Party).
Nkurumah presented people's grievances through boycotts and peaceful demonstrations.
CPP actions against colonial government in Ghana, made Dr. Kwame Nkrumah imprisoned in 1950.
In 1951, elections were held in absence of Kwame Nkrumah but CPP won 33 seats against UGCC 3 seats.
Dr. Nkrumah was later released from prison to form a government after CPP's victory.
In 1952 Nkurumah became Gold Coast Prime Minister.
In 1956's elections CPP won 71 seats against 33 seats of opposition parties. On March 6, Wednesday 1957, Gold Coast became independent taking the name of the ancient empire of Ghana.
In July 1960 Ghana became a republic, with Dr. Kwame Nkrumah as a full executive President and chief of all armed forces.
WHY WAS GHANA THE FIRST COUNTRY TO REGAIN HER INDEPENDENCE PEACEFULLY?
1. Strong and charismatic leadership of Dr. Kwame Nkrumah.
Nkurumah was educated and influential politician. He managed to organize and form CPP in 1949, leading Ghana to independence.
2. Clear policies and slogans.
Most popular CPP slogans were; "seek first the political kingdom and all things will be added into to it" and "self governance now and independence now".
3. Less tribalism and ethnicity as opposed to other African colonies like Nigeria.
4. Presence of few settlers in Ghana.
Few settlers meant less desire to stay in Africa compared to colonies like Zimbabwe and Mozambique.
5. Role of ex-soldiers in Ghana.
Gold coast recruited and supplied soldiers who fought for the colonial administration, during first and Second World Wars.
Ex-soldiers were promised pension and bonuses once they returned from wars.
Unfortunately, due to high inflation and economic collapse caused by world wars, colonial authorities failed to offer ex-soldiers sufficient pensions and other benefits promised earlier.
Unfulfilled promises led to riots. As a result, ex-soldiers including Sergeant Cornelius Francis Adjetey, Corporal Patrick Attipoe and Private Odartey Lamptey used experience and exposure acquired from wars to organize and mobilize Africans to join CPP in riots and demonstrations.
6. Support from cocoa growers. Farmers and peasants provided material support including funds to CPP.
Cocoa growers opposed Cocoa Marketing Board, which set low prices for cocoa.
CPP promised better prices and protection to farmers’ interests after independence.
As a result, Cocoa growers supported the party financially and politically.
7. Ghana was a small country geographically, with good transport and communication system, simplifying communication between nationalists.
8. Use of English as a common language.
English unified Ghananians during colonial period. English enabled different ethnic and linguistic backgrounds to communicate effectively, understand policy documents, and grasp political slogans and messages easily.
English language helped nationalists mobilize support across Ghana, fostering a sense of shared identity.
9. Role-played by newspapers and Journals.
Nationalist leaders and writers wrote articles on Accra Evening news newspaper, to send message to colonial government.
Through Accra Evening news, CPP messages, policies and slogans reached majority of Ghananians.
INFLUENCE OF GHANA TO AFRICAN NATIONALISM
First President of independent Ghana, late Dr. Kwame Nkrumah said; "The independence of Ghana would be meaningless if the rest of Africa remained in shackles of colonialism".
To effect this, Ghana championed the decolonization of other African colonies including Malawi and South Africa.
1. Nkrumah embraced up Pan-African movement and conferences.
In April 1958, leaders and political activists from Egypt, Ethiopia, Morocco, Tunisia and Ghana met in Accra-Ghana. This conference had agenda on how best, decolonization process could take place. It laid down methods and tactics to be employed in the liberation process.
2. Ghana campaigned for invitation of colonies still under colonialism to discuss methods and plans on how to end colonial rule in their respective countries.
3. Ghana pledged African independent countries, to form the OAU decolonization committee, to work with the UNO Trusteeship council to end colonialism.
Nkrumah's dream came into reality on 25th May 1963 when OAU was officially founded with its headquarters in Addis Ababa-Ethiopia.
4. Ghana provided financial and moral support to African colonies to carry on with decolonization process. Nyassa land (Malawi) and Zaire received financial support from Ghana.
5. Ghana established an ideological college in Accra named after Kwame Nkurumah's name. It was responsible in teaching Ghanaians and other African teenagers the socialist Ideology and African self rule.
Robert Gabriel Mugabe attended training at Nkurumah College.
6. Ghana acted as a model for other African countries to emulate/copy. This inspired African countries to go for vigorous campaign against colonialism.
THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE IN TANGANYIKA
Tanganyika was once a German colony and a British colony at different times. It regained independence on 9th December 1961, under its first Prime Minister, Julius Kambarage Nyerere with his party TANU (Tanganyika African National Union).
MAIN OBJECTIVES OF THE TANU
It was founded on seventh of July in 1954 replacing the T.A.A (Tanganyika African Association). It had the following objectives;
1. To prepare Tanganyikans for self-governance and independence.
2. To dismantle tribalism and ethnicity, the great enemies to unity and struggle for freedom as a nation.
3. To struggle for a democratic government and to have representatives in local district and central government.
4. To encourage and sensitize workers to join trade and cooperative unions which could be forums to air out their grievances including land alienation, taxation, poor working conditions and low wages.
5. To cooperate with other nationalist political parties across Africa, to liberate the continent.
TANU under Julius Kambarage cooperated with A.N.C (African National congress) in South Africa to end apartheid policy in 1994.
REASONS WHICH MADE TANGANYIKA TO ATTAIN HER INDEPENDENCE EARLIER THAN KENYA AND UGANDA
1. Strong leadership of Julius Kambarage Nyerere.
He organized and structured TANU from a welfare oriented to a strong nationalistic party leading Tanganyika to independence.
He used to travel almost annually to UNO trusteeship council to plead for independence of Tanganyika.
2. Clear and understandable policies of TANU.
TANU policies were easily understood by both literate and illiterate Tanganyikans in rural and urban areas.
Examples of TANU slogans and policies were; UHURU NA KAZI, TANU YAJENGA NCHI and UHURU NA UMOJA.
3. Role-played by Kiswahili language as a Lingua Franca (common language).
Kiswahili acted as a unifying factor. It was spoken throughout the country, becoming the corner stone to spread TANU policies and slogans.
3. Less tribalism and ethnicity unlike Uganda and Kenya where ethnicity acted as a great barrier towards the struggle for freedom.
4. Few settlers compared to Kenya.
Tanganyika did not face strong opposition from colonial government like in Kenya where Settlers invested heavily in plantations and mines.
Settlers were unprepared to abandon their investments in Africa, forcing Africans to adopt armed technique, delaying attainment of independence.
5. Tanganyika was a trusteeship territory under UNO being prepared for self rule.
Such status speeded up nationalist campaigns for independence of Tanganyika.
In his address to the United Nations General Assembly on 14 December 1961, Julius K. Nyerere, then Prime Minister of newly-independent Tanganyika, stated something along these lines:
“Because Tanganyika was a Trust Territory under British administration, this was a great help in my work to achieve independence for the country, namely, peacefully and through non-violent methods.”
6. Role of newspapers such as SAUTI YA TANU.
Educated Tanganyikans spread TANU policies and slogans through newspapers.
Elites published articles on SAUTI YA TANU, emphasizing the need for Tanganyikans to govern themselves.
Such messages awakened Tanganyikans to begin the struggle for freedom.
7. Support from the last British Govenor Sir Richard Turnbull.
Sir Richard Turnbull, the last British Governor of Tanganyika, worked closely with Mwalimu Julius Nyerere and TANU during final years of colonial rule.
Having witnessed the violence and instability caused by the Mau Mau uprising and the State of Emergency in Kenya, the British administration was determined to avoid a similar situation in Tanganyika.
Turnbull therefore adopted a cooperative approach toward TANU leaders and supported a peaceful and constitutional transfer of power.
This cooperation, combined with Tanganyika’s UN Trust Territory status and Nyerere’s commitment to non-violent nationalism, enabled Tanganyika to achieve independence peacefully in 1961, earlier than other East African territories such as Kenya and Uganda.
PROBLEMS FACING TANGANYIKA DURING NATIONALISTIC STRUGGLE
1. Shortage of funds to organize and run freedom movement activities.
During 1960s still many TANU members under colonial rule were extremely poor and depended on wages from colonial economy.
TANU's leader Nyerere was a teacher with a bachelor wage. Shortage of funds made it difficult to run party activities.
2. Strong opposition from colonial government.
Colonial government restricted public meetings and political mobilisation to safeguard colonial interests, particularly trade and administration.
TANU leaders were denied permits to hold rallies, while some activists such as Rashidi Kawawa were arrested and detained.
Julius Nyerere was dismissed from employment due to engagement in political activities.
3. Disunity.
Some sections of Tanganyikans viewed freedom fighters as troublemakers and discouraged nationalist activities through criticism.
They included individuals who benefited from colonial rule like traders, chiefs, and civil servants, who feared losing economic and social privileges.
Existence of rival political parties like the United Tanganyika Party (UTP) and All-Muslim National Union of Tanganyika (AMNUT) divided political support and temporarily weakened TANU’s efforts.
4. Vastness of Tanganyikan territory.
Tanganyika is geographically large and had poor transport and communication networks.
Most areas were remote and separated by physical barriers such as Lake Victoria, Lake Tanganyika, and mountain ranges like the Usambara Mountains and the Southern Highlands.
Poor roads and limited railway services made it difficult for TANU leaders to reach rural areas, slowing down the spread of nationalist ideas.
REVOLUTIONARY MEANS
A Case of Zanzibar.
A revolution is a complete overthrow of an existing government by people who were previously ruled or oppressed by it.
An example of a political revolution in Africa was the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 led by Gamal Abdel Nasser.
In Zanzibar, long-standing social, economic, and racial inequalities developed after establishment of Arab rule in 1840 under Sultan Seyyid Said.
Africans were economically marginalised, especially on clove plantations, leading to strong resentment.
Zanzibar regained independence from Britain on 10 December 1963 as a constitutional monarchy under Sultan Jamshid bin Abdullah, with a government formed by the ZNP and ZPPP.
However, political power remained in the hands of a minority, causing dissatisfaction.
Zanzibari majority realized that peaceful methods could not achieve true independence and equality in Zanzibar.
Consequently, a revolution erupted on 12 January 1964, leading to overthrow of the Sultanate.
A Revolutionary Council was established, and Sheikh Abeid Amani Karume of the Afro-Shirazi Party became the first President of Zanzibar.
CAUSES OF DECOLONIZATION THROUGH REVOLUTION IN ZANZIBAR
1. Zanzibaris were deprived of political rights under colonial and post-colonial arrangements.
Political exploitation by the ruling elite denied majority of Zanzibaris the right to vote through restrictive franchise qualifications. To qualify as a voter, one had to:
- be able to speak, read, and write Kiswahili, Arabic, or English;
- be a resident of Zanzibar and have lived in a particular constituency for at least one year;
- be a government employee for not less than five years or possess a certificate or medal for good performance; and
- be above 25 years of age.
As a result, most Zanzibaris continued to suffer exploitation, oppression, and political marginalisation on their own land.
Consequently, Zanzibaris lost faith in peaceful constitutional methods.
2. Land alienation.
Zanzibaris were economically marginalised through unequal land ownership. Most fertile land on the islands was controlled by Arab plantation owners who grew cloves and coconuts.
African majority had limited access to land and were mainly employed as cheap labourers on plantations, remaining poor with little economic power.
Land alienation and economic exploitation created hatred, resulting to Zanzibar Revolution of 1964.
3. Monopolization of trade by foreigners.
In Zanzibar, the commercial sector was largely dominated by minority groups, particularly Asians of Indo-Pakistan origin and some Arab elites.
These groups controlled shops, trade, and wholesale businesses, while African majority had limited access to capital and commercial opportunities.
As a result, most Zanzibaris remained poor and economically dependent. Traders charged high prices for goods and services, which majority could not afford, leading to resentment.
Economic inequality created grievances and social tension, contributing to hostility and later Zanzibar Revolution of 1964.
4. Taxation.
Under Sultan Jamshid bin Abdullah, the government of Zanzibar introduced several forms of taxation that heavily affected African majority.
Taxes like hut tax, poll tax, and trade levies were high. Many poor Zanzibaris mainly peasants and plantation labourers, could not afford to pay taxes.
Traders, including minority Asian and Arab merchants, set high prices for goods, increasing economic hardship.
Combined economic pressures created hostility against the Sultanate, contributing to the Zanzibar Revolution in January 1964.
5. Role played by John Okello.
John Okello was a man from northern Uganda who settled in Zanzibar in 1952 and worked as a painter.
He became involved with Afro-Shirazi Party (ASP) on Pemba Island and developed revolutionary ideas as early as 1961, believing that only a violent overthrow could end Arab dominance and bring equality to Zanzibaris.
Okello was a determined and disciplined individual with strong organizational and leadership skills.
He played a central role in planning, mobilizing, and executing the Zanzibar Revolution of January 1964, earning recognition as the mastermind and principal organizer of the uprising.
6. Fall of clove prices in the world market in the early 1960s created severe economic problems in Zanzibar.
Clove was main export and source of revenue, the government under Sultan Jamshid bin Abdullah faced reduced income.
In response, the Sultanate cut government spending on social services including healthcare and education, increasing social suffering and unemployment among Zazibaris.
Economic hardships, political and social inequalities, fueled anger. Zanzibaris, united by shared grievances, ultimately overthrew the Sultan in the Zanzibar Revolution of January 1964.
EFFECTS OF ZANZIBAR REVOLUTION
1. Equality among Zanzibaris. The revolution ended classes in Zanzibar. Social stratification was declared illegal after the revolution.
Stratification such as religious differences, races and status were well checked by the new government under Karume.
2. Zanzibar revolution gave Zanzibar an international recognition as a sovereign state and that she became a member of both the United Nations Organization and Commonwealth of Nations.
3. It led to nationalization of all major means of production such as land, commercial companies and banks previously owned by few rich Arabs and Indians.
After nationalization, resources and infrastructures were owned by the new independent revolutionary government on behalf of the public.
The land previously owned by minority rich Arabs and Indians, was measured and properly redistributed to majority of Zanzibaris.
4. Assurence of political rights to all Zanzibaris.
After the revolution, the Afro-Shirazi Party (ASP) led by Sheikh Abeid Amani Karume introduced reforms that allowed African majority to participate in governance.
Periodic elections were held to elect representatives at both local and national levels, giving citizens the right to vote and stand for office.
5. Provision of social services.
Housing projects were expanded to provide affordable homes for ordinary citizens, while electricity and clean water were extended to more urban and rural areas.
Education became more accessible, with schools opened across Unguja and Pemba islands to serve the African majority. Health services were also improved, with hospitals and clinics established or expanded to provide care for all citizens, regardless of social or ethnic background.
These reforms ensured that the previously marginalized African population had access to basic social services, promoting social equality and improving living standards.
6. Improved transport facilities to make movement easier for citizens.
Public transport was expanded through the purchase of ships and boats to connect islands and coastal areas. For example, the government acquired the MV Mapinduzi to facilitate passenger and goods transport between Unguja and Pemba islands.
Road networks were improved, and ferry services were established to link remote areas, promoting trade, communication, and access to services.
UNION BETWEEN ZANZIBAR AND TANGANYIKA
The Union between Zanzibar and Tanganyika was an event in which the leaders of the two countries joined to form a single nation, Tanzania.
The Union was initiated by Julius Kambarage Nyerere of Tanganyika and Sheikh Abeid Amani Karume of Zanzibar, and it officially took place on 26th April 1964.
As a part of the agreement, the two countries agreed to share key national functions, including defense, police, the state of emergency, and external affairs.
The reasons behind the Union can be grouped into internal and external factors, reflecting pressures and interests both within the countries and from outside Africa.
Reasons for the Union between Tanganyika and Zanzibar.
1. The role played by Pan- Africanism.
Pan-Africanism had for a long period been motivating all Africans to unite so they can fight colonial injustices, oppression and exploitation. Therefore Nyerere and Karume being inspired by idea of Pan Africanism, decided to be the first African countries unite.
2. Influence of western countries like USA, British and France.
After Zanzibar Revolution of 1964, these countries viewed Zanzibar as a potential threat, similar to Cuba, because of fears that it might adopt communism.
Concerned about the spread of communism in East Africa, they pressured Tanganyika’s President, Julius Kambarage Nyerere, to find a solution that would stabilize the region.
Part of this solution involved persuading Sheikh Abeid Amani Karume to unite Zanzibar with Tanganyika, creating a single, politically stable nation.
3. Internal opposition within Zanzibar.
After the Zanzibar Revolution of January 1964, Sheikh Abeid Amani Karume faced opposition from radical elements within Zanzibar, particularly from supporters of John Okello and other revolutionaries who wanted more extreme policies.
These radicals challenged Karume’s authority and created political instability, leaving him feeling insecure. To consolidate power and stabilize Zanzibar, Karume saw the Union with Tanganyika as a way to contain these internal threats, gain political backing, and ensure security. Thus, internal opposition within Zanzibar was a key factor that motivated the Union with Tanganyika.
4. A good relationship between TANU and ASP as major political parties in this two countries.
Both had common aim to unite Africans since ZAA and TAA periods in Zanzibar and Tanganyika respectively. In this case the Union would further bring their close tie they had.
Additionally, the long-standing personal and political relationship between Nyerere and Karume strengthened the decision for Union. Nyerere had influenced the formation of the Afro-Shirazi Party (ASP) and supported the Zanzibar Revolution, and the Union was seen as a way to cement this friendship while ensuring regional security and stability.
5. Close relationship between people of Tanganyika and Zanzibar.
The people of Tanganyika and Zanzibar shared strong historical and cultural ties, largely because many Zanzibaris had ancestral links to the mainland due to movements during and after the slave trade.
Families, languages, and trade connections linked the islands and the mainland, creating a sense of shared identity.
The Union was seen as a way to restore these connections, strengthen social and economic bonds, and allow people separated by history to enjoy closer ties.
ARMED STRUGGLE /BARREL OF GUN.
Most African colonies largely dominated by settlers, regained their independence by armed struggle.
A good number of countries adopted this means following the failure of peaceful means.
Examples of the African colonies, which waged armed struggle as a means of liberating themselves, were South Africa, Namibia, Mozambique, Angola, Zimbabwe, and Kenya
A CASE OF ZIMBABWE
Zimbabwe, formerly known as Southern Rhodesia, was a settler-dominated colony under British rule. Its population was divided along racial and political lines, with the European settlers controlling politics, the economy, and land, while the African majority was largely marginalized.
The settlers resisted any move toward self-governance by the African population, banning political parties and imprisoning African nationalist leaders such as Joshua Nkomo.
On 11th November 1965, the Ian Smith regime, dominated by white settlers, unilaterally declared independence from Britain in what became known as the Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI). This declaration entrenched minority rule and ignored the demands of the African majority.
Negotiations between the settlers, Ian Smith’s government, and Britain in the 1970s failed to bring immediate majority rule. The settler regime promised that African majority rule would only be implemented in 2035, which was unacceptable to the African nationalists.
Zimbabwe eventually attained independence on Friday 18th April 1980, under the leadership of Robert Gabriel Mugabe, who became the country’s first Prime Minister. His nationalist party, the Zimbabwe African National Union Patriotic Front (ZANU–PF), played a key role in the liberation struggle and in bringing about majority rule and political independence.
WHY ARMED STRUGGLE IN SOUTHERN RHODESIA (ZIMBABWE)
1. Heavy investments in Zimbabwe by settlers.
British settlers opened large-scale agriculture and mining in Zimbabwe. They were not ready to lose their investments to Africans.
As a result, they resisted granting independence to Southern Rhodesia, determined to maintain their control. This resistance ultimately necessitated an armed struggle for liberation.
2. The constitution, which was adopted in 1922 October.
The constitution adopted in October 1922 granted special powers to the white minority settlers, who frequently suppressed the political autonomy of Zimbabweans.
Under this constitution, the settlers were given a responsible government, making Southern Rhodesia a self-governing colony.
Consequently, it had its own parliament, army, and police force. This measure concentrated significant power in the hands of the settlers, which they used to consolidate their control and maintain dominance over the African population.
3. Settlers exploitation to Zimbabweans: the settlers exploited Zimbabweans through forced labor, land alienation, low wages and taxation. This made armed struggle innevitable in Zimbabwe.
4. Banning of political parties and imprisonment of radical political leaders.
This intensified the choice of armed struggle as a means towards liberation in Southern Rhodesia.
The banning of the ZANU-PF and imprisonment of leaders like Joshua Nkomo escalated anger towards the Settlers.
ZANU-PF continued with its liberation at this time operating from Mozambique.
5. Disunity among Zimbabweans.
The freedom fighters were divided among themselves, leading to formation of multiple political parties, such as the UNC, DP, ZANU, and ZAPU.
Each party pursued its own agenda and there was little cooperation between them.
This division allowed the white settlers in Southern Rhodesia to introduce their puppets and implement policies that suppressed Zimbabweans with minimal resistance.
As a result, prominent nationalist leaders, including Joshua Nkomo and Robert Gabriel Mugabe, resorted to armed struggle as a strategy to dismantle settler control and challenge puppet administrations.
6. Lack of representative in the legislative Council.
Zimbabweans were excluded from the legislative council, denying them any say in the laws and policies that governed their country.
This exclusion fueled hatred and frustration, leading many Zimbabweans to take up arms and fight for their freedom and political rights.
THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE IN KENYA
Kenya was one of the British East African colonies that regained independence through both political negotiation and armed struggle.
Kenya African Union (K.A.U), formed in 1944, initially pursued independence through political means, organizing table discussions and petitions to press the colonial government for African representation and majority rule.
However, when peaceful efforts were met with resistance and K.A.U was banned in 1952, some members turned to armed struggle, giving rise to the Mau Mau movement.
From 1952, the Mau Mau engaged in guerrilla warfare in the forests of the Aberdare and Mount Kenya region, aiming to pressure the colonial government into granting independence.
Its members included ex-servicemen, former soldiers, wage laborers, and radical nationalist groups.
This combined political and armed struggle culminated in Kenya’s independence on 12th December 1963 under the leadership of Jomo Kenyatta and the Kenya African National Union (KANU).
REASONS FOR ARMED STRUGGLE IN KENYA
1. Kenya was a settler colony.
Settlers flew to Kenya by 1900s where they established settler farms. The white settlers in Kenya regarded Kenya as a crown colony in the British empire.
They invested heavily in processing industries, transport and communication networks.
This made them reluctant to grant Kenyans freedom peacefully necessitating the application of the barrel of the gun in the struggle for independence.
2. The influence of ex-soldiers who fought in the second world war (1939 - 1945).
It is estimated that more than 75,000 Kenyans fought on the side of Britain in the Kings African rifles.
The white soldiers who fought in the war were given loans with dear interests. In contrary, the lives of the Kenyan soldiers became worse than when they left for the war, developing grievances against the colonial government.
As a result, they organize Mau Mau movements in the attempt to wipe away colonialism.
3. Intensive colonial exploitation.
Colonial government intensified land alienation especially in the Kikuyu highlands, and heavy taxation in Kenya.
Matiti Tax, Poll tax and head taxes were introduced to increase revenue.
Kipande system was tightened to increase working ours.
4. Banning of political parties and the imprisonment of radical political leaders.
The banning of political parties and the imprisonment of radical leaders further intensified Kenya’s struggle for independence.
The Kenya African Union (K.A.U) was banned in 1952, leaving many nationalists frustrated with the lack of political avenues.
Key figures in the Mau Mau movement, such as General Dedan Kimathi, were arrested.
Kimathi was captured on 21st October 1956, detained, and later executed by colonial authorities.
These actions by the British colonial government heightened tensions and fueled the armed struggle, as more Kenyans turned to guerrilla warfare in the forests of the Aberdares and Mount Kenya region to demand freedom and majority rule.
5. Denial of basic human rights such as freedom of speech and the right of Kenyans to join in assemblies and associations.
6. Injustices and mistreatments.
Settlers were favored and were provided with better transport facilities, communication services, better health care, education and Security.
Majority of Kenyans had no access to such facilities. These inequalities prompted Kenyans to take up arms and fight for their right.
Eventually, Kenya got her independence in 1963 under the leadership of Jommo Kenyatta of KANU, becoming the last country in East Africa to get her independence.
THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE IN MOZAMBIQUE.
In 1962, a group of exiled Mozambicans met in Dar-es-Salaam and merged their parties to form a single political organization, the FRELIMO (Frente de Libertação de Moçambique, or Front for the Liberation of Mozambique), under the leadership of Eduardo Mondlane.
This new party was formed from the unification of UDENAMO, MANU, and UNAMI, and spent the next two years organizing itself structurally and politically.
Most of FRELIMO’s early nationalistic activities, including organizational work, mobilization, and military training, took place in Dar-es-Salaam and in the nearby Mtwara region of Tanzania.
Despite being banned by the Portuguese colonial government, by 1964 FRELIMO had established training camps inside Mozambique, preparing for armed struggle.
By 1968, the party controlled significant territory within Mozambique and successfully held its second congress on Mozambican soil.
Tragically, on Monday, 3 February 1969, Eduardo Mondlane was assassinated in Dar-es-Salaam by a parcel bomb, at a time when the party headquarters were temporarily located in Tanzania due to the banning of political parties in Mozambique. His death was a major setback but did not stop FRELIMO’s struggle for independence.
FACTORS FOR ARMED STRUGGLE IN PORTUGUESE COLONIES.
1. Portugal was a poor country in Europe whose economy depended heavily on colonies.
Portuguese government was not ready to grant independence to her colonies because it would mean economic suicide.
Portugal had four colonies in Africa which included; Angola, Guinea Bissau, Cape Verde, and Mozambique. These countries attained their independence late as compared to other African countries.
2. Desire of Africans to be free.
Because Portugal refused to grant independence, prolonged guerrilla wars broke out across its African territories.
The lead was taken by the smallest Portuguese colony, Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde, under the leadership of Amílcar Cabral. He founded the PAIGC (Partido Africano da Independência da Guiné e Cabo Verde) in 1956.
Through effective guerrilla warfare, Guinea-Bissau declared independence in 1973, which was officially recognized by Portugal in 1974.
Amílcar Cabral was assassinated in January 1973, before full independence was achieved.
In Angola, Agostinho Neto led the guerrilla struggle against Portuguese rule after founding the MPLA (Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola) in December 1956 in Luanda, mainly among the working class.
After years of armed struggle, Angola attained independence in 1975.
In Mozambique, the nationalist struggle was led by Eduardo Mondlane, and later by his deputy Samora Machel. They founded FRELIMO (Frente de Libertação de Moçambique) in 1962 in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
FRELIMO officially launched the armed struggle against Portuguese rule in September 1964, which eventually led to Mozambique’s independence in 1975.
3. The Portugal colonial policy.
Portugal regarded her colonies as overseas provinces.
Portugal was a small nation, she was very interested to acquiring more overseas land, whereby she could obtain raw materials, exploit market and settlement of surplus population.
4. Settlers opposed the granting of independence to the Africans because of heavy investment in the colonies.
They had opened large scale cash crop farms, mines and infrastructures, ideal for trade and commerce.
Portuguese were conservative.
They did not change with ages. Other European nations had changed their way of exploitation to neo-colonialism.
Portuguese were not planning to grant independence to their colonies soon, necessitating armed struggle.
5. Banning of political parties in the colonies, like FRELIMO, PAIGC and MPLA.
6. Portugal was a fascist state by nature.
It was ruled by a dictatorial regime under António de Oliveira Salazar. His government, known as the Estado Novo, was authoritarian and denied political freedoms.
As a result, Africans in the Portuguese colonies were oppressed, economically exploited, and socially humiliated. This oppression was justified by the Portuguese belief in an “everlasting civilizing mission”, which claimed that Portugal had a permanent duty to rule and “civilize” Africans.
This ideology denied Africans the right to self-determination and independence.
NATIONALISM IN SOUTH AFRICA.
South Africa was a settler colony, first colonized by the Dutch (Boers) and later by the British. The country eventually attained majority rule through a combination of peaceful protest and armed struggle. This struggle arose mainly because Africans suffered severely under the Apartheid system, which politically, economically, and socially segregated the black majority from the white minority.
The first African nationalist political organization in South Africa was the South African Native National Congress (SANNC), formed in 1912. In 1923, the SANNC changed its name to the African National Congress (ANC).
By the early 1940s, the ANC attracted a group of young, educated, and radical nationalists such as Walter Sisulu, Anton Lembede, Oliver Tambo, and Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela. In 1944, these leaders formed the ANC Youth League, which revitalized the organization and pushed for more militant methods of resistance.
In 1955, the ANC organized the Congress of the People, which produced the Freedom Charter. The Charter declared that “South Africa belongs to all who live in it, black and white.” As a result, the apartheid government arrested several ANC leaders and charged them with treason in what became known as the Treason Trial. By 1961, all the accused had been acquitted and released.
In 1959, Robert Sobukwe broke away from the ANC and formed the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC). He argued that the ANC was too multiracial and too slow in adopting armed struggle against apartheid.
On 21 March 1960, PAC supporters organized a peaceful protest against the pass laws. During this demonstration at Sharpeville, the police opened fire on unarmed protesters, killing 69 Africans and wounding about 180 others.
This tragic event is historically known as the Sharpeville Massacre. Following this incident, both the ANC and PAC were banned, forcing nationalist movements to go underground.
SIGNIFICANCE OF SHARPEVILLE MASSACRES
1. Created awareness
The Killings of more than 60 black people and many others wounded during the demonstrations awakened the need for Africans to intensify armed struggle and that the Sharpeville massacres marked the end of peaceful means towards the struggle for the majority rule in South Africa.
2. Unity
The demonstrations and strikes united the young black Africans and the adult black Africans to resist the white domination in South Africa.
3. International awakening.
The killings at Sharpeville precipitated an international awakening and opposition to injustices and racial segregation in South Africa. The international community became aware of what was going on in South Africa.
4. The O.A.U (Organization of African Unity) acted.
OAU persuaded the western powers not to sell firearms to the South African white racist regime.
5. The Sharpeville massacres led to the formation of the Ukhomto we sizwe (spear of the nation) by Nelson Mandela as a fighting wing by the A.N.C Youth.
In 1964, Nelson Mandela and his colleagues were detained; Mandela was sentenced to life imprisonment. The leaders who were not imprisoned such as Oliver Thambo fled into exile and tried to set up an A.N.C (wing in friendly countries like Tanzania and Zambia.
For example, the A.N.C wing was established in Mazimbu -Morogoro where the A.N.C opened its branch; military trainings were carried out there, furthermore, other fighters established RADIO FREEDOM, which was broadcasting from Mazimbu and heard in South Africa. The radio station aired radio programs, which awakened blacks in South Africa about the evils of the white racist regime in South Africa.
The programs pled black South Africans to come together as one people against APARTHEID.
APARTHEID AND THE SOWETO MASSACRE
Despite many ANC leaders being imprisoned and exiled, the African National Congress (ANC) continued with nationalist activities both inside and outside South Africa. The movement operated underground within the country and mobilized international support abroad.
In 1976, Steve Biko, through the Black Consciousness Movement, inspired black youth and students to resist apartheid.
The term Apartheid comes from the Afrikaans (Boer) language, meaning “separateness.” Apartheid was a racial segregation policy that enforced separation between blacks and whites.
Although racial discrimination existed earlier, apartheid was officially introduced and institutionalized in 1948 by the National Party government under Prime Minister Dr. D. F. Malan.
During the apartheid era, Africans were oppressed, exploited, and discriminated
They were treated as third-class citizens, receiving inferior social services such as education, health care, housing, and security, while political rights were denied entirely.
On 16 June 1976, black students in Soweto organized a massive demonstration to protest against the apartheid government’s education policy, which enforced Afrikaans as a medium of instruction in African schools.
This policy was viewed as an attempt to further oppress Africans through an inferior and alien education system.
White South African students were taught in languages such as English and Afrikaans, which were considered the standard mediums of instruction for whites.
In contrast, black African students were forced to learn certain subjects in Afrikaans, which they largely rejected as a language of oppression.
During the Soweto Uprising on 16 June 1976, many black students were shot and killed by police, while others were badly injured, imprisoned, or brutally tortured.
This day is historically commemorated as the Soweto Massacre, and it is observed on 16 June each year as African Child Day, a commemoration officially recognized by the Organization of African Unity (OAU), now the African Union (AU).
THE COURSE OF THE APARTHEID POLICY
- In 1913, the Native Land Act was passed reserving 78% of the fertile land and best of South Africas land to the whites, black people comprised of 70% of the population in South Africa and were given (8%) of the unproductive land. The black people were forced to stay in reserve areas called BANTUSTANTS.
- In 1923, the Native Urban Areas Act was passed whereby Africans movements to urban areas where the whites settled were restricted. This aimed at reducing black political activism in the towns.
- In 1927, the Immorality Act was passed in South Africa, which prohibited sexual relations between white people and people of other races. The law aimed to enforce racial segregation and preserve what the authorities called “racial purity.” As a result, people were expected to marry within their own racial group, not freely across races.
- In 1953, the Bantu Education Act was passed in South Africa. This law ensured that Africans were denied education equal to that of whites and instead received an inferior form of education designed to prepare them only for manual labor and subservient roles.
- The apartheid policy also suppressed individual rights and liberties. Black South Africans were denied freedom of association, freedom of assembly, freedom of speech, and freedom of worship.
- In addition, the Boer (Afrikaner) government imposed heavy taxes on blacks, and the revenue collected was largely used to improve social services and living conditions in white settlements, while black communities remained underdeveloped.
- Political parties were banned, and black South Africans were not represented in the government or parliament. As a result, both parliament and the government served the interests of whites only. For example, following the Sharpeville Massacre of 21 March 1960, the apartheid government officially banned the African National Congress (ANC) and the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC) on 8 April 1960.
METHODS/TACTICS EMPLOYED BY THE BLACK MAJORITY IN SOUTH AFRICA TO END APARTHEID
1. Formation of political parties.
The South African Native National Congress (S.A.N.N.C), founded in 1912, later changed its name to the African National Congress (A.N.C) in 1923 (not 1935).
Although many political parties were later banned by the apartheid government, they played a fundamental role in awakening Black South Africans to the evils of apartheid.
These parties also organized peaceful campaigns, petitions, and protests against racial segregation and discrimination.
2. Mass peaceful demonstrations.
The use of mass peaceful demonstrations greatly pressured the apartheid (Boer) government to consider reforms. Men, women, and children participated in protests demanding the abolition of apartheid laws.
Notable examples include the Sharpeville Massacre of 21 March 1960, when protesters demonstrated against pass laws, and the Soweto Uprising of 16 June 1976, where students protested against the use of Afrikaans as a medium of instruction. These events exposed the brutality of apartheid and raised political awareness among Black South Africans and the international community.
3. Use of arts and culture.
Arts such as music, poems, novels, and songs played a powerful role in mobilizing resistance against apartheid. Musicians like Lucky Dube, through songs such as Together as One, promoted unity between Blacks and Whites.
International artists like Bob Marley and South African exile Miriam Makeba drew global attention to apartheid abuses. Writers such as Peter Abrahams, in his novel Mine Boy, highlighted the harsh exploitation of Black workers in the mines, thereby exposing the social injustices of the apartheid system.
4. Underground organizations and armed struggle.
After the banning of political parties in 1960, many activists operated underground. Radical leaders mobilized supporters to secretly join resistance movements and guerrilla organizations.
In 1961, the ANC formed Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK), meaning “Spear of the Nation”, which became the armed wing of the ANC.
Many young men and women joined MK to fight the racist white minority regime through sabotage and armed resistance.
5. Use of mass media (Radio Freedom).
Mass media, especially radio, was an important tool for mobilization. ANC leaders in exile, with the support of friendly African states such as Tanzania, established Radio Freedom, which broadcast messages into South Africa.
From places like Mazimbu and Morogoro, the radio programs encouraged unity, resistance, and political consciousness among Black South Africans.
6. Religious organizations and forums.
Religious leaders and organizations played a significant role in the anti-apartheid struggle. The United Democratic Front (U.D.F), formed in 1983, was a coalition of over 600 organizations.
Prominent religious leaders such as Archbishop Desmond Tutu and Rev. Allan Boesak used churches and religious platforms to condemn apartheid, promote justice, and mobilize peaceful resistance.
7. International sanctions and pressure.
The international community imposed economic, military, and diplomatic sanctions against South Africa.
The Organization of African Unity (O.A.U) appealed to Western countries to stop selling weapons to the apartheid regime.
South Africa was also banned from international sports, denied air-landing rights in many countries, and isolated diplomatically, weakening its economy and legitimacy.
8. Seeking international support.
Liberation movements sought support from friendly countries in Africa and beyond. The A.N.C and P.A.C established offices and military training camps in countries such as Tanzania, Zambia, Angola, and Mozambique.
Countries like Cuba also supported African liberation movements, strengthening the struggle against apartheid.
9. Strikes and civil disobedience.
Workers organized strikes, stay-aways, and hunger strikes to protest low wages, poor working conditions, and racial discrimination.
These actions disrupted the economy and attracted international attention, further pressuring the apartheid government to negotiate and eventually grant majority rule.
REASONS FOR THE PROTRACTION/DELAY OF SOUTH AFRICAS INDEPENDENCE
1. Support from Western countries.
Some Western countries such as the United States, Britain, and France supported the apartheid regime because they had strong economic interests in South Africa.
These countries had heavily invested in mining, agriculture, and industries. For example, companies such as British Petroleum (BP) and other Western multinational corporations benefited from cheap Black labor.
This economic support strengthened the apartheid regime and delayed the attainment of majority rule.
2. Banning of anti-apartheid movements.
After the Sharpeville Massacre of 21 March 1960, the apartheid government banned major nationalist organizations such as the African National Congress (ANC) and the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC).
The banning of these movements forced leaders into exile or underground activities, disrupted mass mobilization, and significantly slowed down the struggle for majority rule.
3. Imprisonment, assassination, and exile of leaders.
Many radical leaders were imprisoned, assassinated, or forced into exile. Steve Biko, leader of the Black Consciousness Movement, was brutally tortured and murdered in police custody in 1977.
Leaders such as Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela and Walter Sisulu were sentenced to life imprisonment, while others like Oliver Tambo lived in exile.
These actions weakened leadership and coordination. Mandela’s autobiography, Long Walk to Freedom, clearly illustrates how the struggle was long, painful, and filled with hardships.
4. Political independence without economic power.
South Africa had been recognized internationally as an independent state since 1910 (Union of South Africa) and later became a republic in 1961.
However, real power remained in the hands of the white minority. Africans were denied political rights and access to economic resources through apartheid laws, making true independence and majority rule difficult to achieve.
5. Lack of unity among nationalist organizations.
There was disunity among nationalist movements, which weakened the struggle.
Organizations such as the ANC, PAC, Indian Congresses and Inkatha Freedom Movement, worked independently and sometimes competed against one another.
This lack of cooperation reduced effectiveness and slowed progress toward majority rule.
6. Poverty among Africans.
Poverty greatly hindered the struggle. Many Africans were confined to Bantustans (homelands), which had poor soils, inadequate infrastructure, and limited economic opportunities.
This made it difficult for Africans to fund and sustain resistance against a militarily and economically powerful white minority regime.
7. Weak methods of struggle in the early period.
Before the 1960s, the ANC and PAC mainly used non-violent methods such as petitions, strikes, boycotts, and demonstrations, inspired partly by Mahatma Gandhi’s philosophy.
These methods achieved limited success. It was only after the Sharpeville Massacre in 1960 that the ANC formed Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK), meaning “Spear of the Nation”, and adopted armed struggle.
8. Cold War politics and fear of communism.
Western powers feared that an independent South Africa might fall under communist influence, especially since neighboring countries like Angola and Mozambique had Marxist-oriented governments.
As a result, capitalist countries were reluctant to fully support the liberation struggle, delaying international backing for majority rule.
9. Collaboration and betrayal by puppets.
The apartheid regime used collaborators and informers among Africans to weaken the liberation movements.
These “puppets” betrayed fellow freedom fighters by reporting secret plans to the authorities, leading to arrests and failed operations.
This undermined trust and disrupted nationalist activities.
10. South Africa’s control of Namibia (South West Africa).
South Africa’s occupation of Namibia provided it with strategic military advantages. The territory was used as a military base and as a route for Western military cooperation. This strengthened South Africa’s defense system and made it more difficult for liberation movements to operate effectively.
PROBLEMS FACING THE NATIONALISTS IN AFRICA DURING THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE
1. Banning of political parties.
Colonial governments used oppressive apparatus such as the colonial army, police, and courts to suppress African nationalist movements. Many political parties were banned to weaken mass mobilization.
For example;
- The African National Congress (ANC) in South Africa was banned on 8 April 1960 following the Sharpeville Massacre.
- In Kenya, the Kenya African Union (KAU) was banned during the Mau Mau emergency.
- In Portuguese colonies, movements such as FRELIMO in Mozambique were outlawed.
These bans forced parties to operate underground, slowing down the struggle for independence.
2. Tribalism and ethnicity.
Africans identified more strongly with their ethnic groups than with national unity.
For example, in Uganda, divisions between groups such as the Buganda and Banyankole made cooperation difficult.
Such divisions reduced unity and delayed effective resistance against European colonialism.
3. Illiteracy among Africans.
Majority Africans could not read or write, making it difficult for them to understand political ideas, party manifestos, and nationalist policies.
This limited political awareness and reduced mass participation in nationalist movements.
4. Imprisonment, detention, exile, and assassination of leaders.
- Eduardo Mondlane, leader of FRELIMO in Mozambique, was assassinated by a parcel bomb in Dar es Salaam on 3 February 1969.
- Steve Biko of South Africa was tortured and murdered in police custody in 1977. Dedan Kimathi of Kenya was captured and executed in 1957.
Many leaders were imprisoned:
- Nelson Mandela was sentenced to life imprisonment in 1964 during the Rivonia Trial and detained on Robben Island;
- Walter Sisulu was also imprisoned;
- Kwame Nkrumah was jailed before Ghana’s independence; and
- Jomo Kenyatta was detained during the Mau Mau period.
- In Tanganyika, Julius Nyerere was charged with treason in 1955 and fined, a penalty paid through TANU members’ contributions. These actions disrupted leadership and organization.
5. Financial constraints.
African nationalist parties faced serious financial problems. They lacked strong economic bases and depended mainly on small membership subscriptions collected secretly.
This limited their ability to print materials, organize rallies, support detained members, and maintain offices, thus slowing the struggle for independence.
6. Religious differences.
- In Uganda, political rivalry existed between Catholics, led by Benedicto Kiwanuka, and Protestants, associated with Milton Obote.
- In Nigeria, the predominantly Muslim North feared domination by the mainly Christian South, while southerners feared northern dominance.
These religious differences prevented Africans from fully uniting against colonial rule.
7. Poor infrastructure and communication.
Many areas lacked good roads, making it difficult for party leaders to reach supporters.
Nationalist parties also lacked offices and meeting venues.
- In Tanganyika, TANU leaders often held meetings secretly in private homes such as Abdul Sykes’ house due to colonial restrictions. This limited effective organization and coordination.
8. Unwillingness of colonial powers to grant independence.
Some colonial powers were reluctant to grant independence, viewing African colonies as permanent overseas possessions.
This was especially true in Portuguese colonies such as Mozambique and Angola, where Portugal insisted that these territories were integral parts of Portugal.
As a result, independence was delayed and only achieved after prolonged armed struggle.
9. Tribal secessionist movements.
Tribalism also manifested through secessionist demands, which weakened nationalist struggles.
For example, the Buganda Kingdom in Uganda demanded separate independence instead of supporting a united Ugandan nation.
Such movements divided Africans and undermined collective resistance against colonialism.
Despite all the ups and downs, Africans regained freedom.
Reflection questions:
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