SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PRODUCTION IN PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA
SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND PRODUCTION IN PRE-COLONIAL AFRICA.
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION.
Social organization refers to how a society is structured, especially in terms of how people produce, distribute, and share resources. This is often explained through the concept of the mode of production.
CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS.
1. Mode of Production.
It is the way in which a society organizes the production of goods and services. It Combines:
- Productive forces (labor and tools)
- Relations of production (who owns what, who controls labor).
Examples: Communalism, Slavery, Feudalism, Capitalism
2. Human Labour.
It is the physical and mental effort used in production.
Involves skills, knowledge, and energy of people.
3. Productive Forces.
Refers to the elements used to produce goods.
Includes: Human labor and Instruments of labor (tools, machines).
4. Object of Labour. The natural resource or material upon which labor is applied. Examples: Soil for farming, wood for carving.
5. Means of Production:
Refers to the physical tools and resources used in production, (Example; Instruments of labor like hoes, plows and machines) and Objects of labor (Example, land, water, and raw materials).
6. Relations of Production:
These are the social and economic relationships, that people form in the process of production.
It determines who owns the means of production and who works.
Examples:
- Master and slave.
- Landlord and peasant.
- Employer and worker.
7. Society’s Superstructure.
Refers to the Institutions, ideas, and beliefs that support the economic base.
They includes:
- Religion
- Education
- Politics
- Law
They reflects and defends the dominant economic system.
8. Social Formation.
It is a complete society made up of:
- An economic system (mode of production)
- Political structure
- Ideology.
Pre-colonial African communities had social formations based on communal or feudal systems.
Example:
In a pre-colonial African village:
The mode of production might be= communal farming.
Human labor = villagers working the land.
Object of labor = the land they farm.
Means of production = hoes, land, seeds.
Relations of production = people working together and sharing.
Superstructure = beliefs about land belonging to the community.
Social formation = all these parts combined into one living society.
TYPES OF SOCIAL ORGANIZATION.
A) PRIMITIVE COMMUNALISM / COMMUNAL MODE OF PRODUCTION
This was the earliest and most basic form of social organization. People lived and worked together in small communities, practicing collective ownership of the means of production.
The term "primitive" refers to the low level of productive forces (basic tools and techniques).
The term "communalism" reflects the absence of exploitation, people shared resources equally and worked together.
Even today, some African communities still practice communalism, including:
- The Tindiga and Hadzabe of Singida and Lake Manyara, Tanzania.
- The Dorobo (Okiek) of the Mau Forest, Kenya.
- The Teso in Uganda.
- The Mbali of the equatorial rainforests in Congo (DRC).
- The San (Bushmen) of Southern Africa.
- The Khoikhoi of the Kalahari Desert in Botswana.
- The Tur of Ghana.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PRIMITIVE COMMUNALISM.
1. Absence of Exploitation.
No one exploited others; all able-bodied individuals worked and shared resources equally.
2. Low Level of Production.
Production was limited due to simple tools (stone, wood, bones) and lack of advanced techniques.
Very little or no surplus was produced.
3. Dependence on Nature.
Life depended heavily on the environment; weather and seasons determined survival and activity.
4. Communal Ownership.
Land, tools, water sources, and other resources were owned collectively by the whole community.
5. Hunting and Gathering.
The primary means of survival; people lived in hunting bands.
This later evolved into animal domestication and basic farming, leading to division of labor.
6. Subsistence Economy.
Production was only for immediate consumption, not for trade or profit.
No accumulation of wealth.
7. Lack of Specialization.
Everyone performed multiple roles (hunting, gathering, tool-making).
Over time, a basic division of labor by gender emerged (e.g., men hunted, women gathered).
8. Absence of Social Classes.
There was no ruling elite or standing army.
Elders offered guidance, but were not rulers or exploiters.
FACTORS FOR THE TRANSITION FROM PRIMITIVE COMMUNALISM TO SLAVERY AND FEUDAL MODES OF PRODUCTION.
1. Neolithic Revolution.
This refers to the first major agricultural change, shifting from nomadic hunting and gathering to settled farming. It brought:
- Permanent settlements.
- Surplus production.
- Division of labor by age and gender.
- Specialization of work.
- Spread of diseases due to dense population.
- Rise of private property and inequality.
2. Advancement in Science and Technology
Technological progress in making tools (e.g., metal tools like iron hoes, ploughs) allowed:
- Improved farming and food production.
- Greater control over nature and land.
- Emergence of social classes based on control of tools and land.
- Expansion of trade and craft industries.
3. Population Growth
Rapid population growth, through births and migration, led to:
- Increased demand for resources.
- Emergence of class-based leadership.
- Formation of organized political units like chiefdoms and kingdoms.
- Development of armies to control resources and people.
4. Development of Permanent Settlements
As people settled:
- They began owning land and livestock.
- Some accumulated wealth while others remained poor.
- Social inequality grew as control over resources concentrated in fewer hands.
- Permanent structures encouraged the formation of villages and towns.
5. Emergence of Private Property.
As individuals began claiming land, livestock, and tools as personal property:
- Communal ownership declined.
- Inequality grew as some became rich while others became poor
- Slavery emerged when the poor became dependent or were captured in conflicts.
6. Increased Warfare and Captivity.
With population growth and resource competition:
- Conflicts became more common.
- War captives were turned into slaves.
- Tribes and states used slavery as a labor system for agriculture and construction.
7. Development of Trade.
Trade expanded between communities, exchanging surplus goods:
- Created merchant classes.
- Wealth accumulation led to social stratification.
- Some traders captured or bought slaves to increase their labor force.
8. Decline of Equality and Rise of Social Classes
Primitive communalism was based on equality and shared labor. As surplus increased:
- Some people controlled production and distribution.
- Classes formed (e.g., nobles, warriors, slaves).
- Exploitation of man by man began, especially in slavery and feudal systems.
B: SLAVERY MODE OF PRODUCTION.
Slavery refers to a system in which a person is owned by another and is used primarily as an instrument of labor and production. It marked a major transformation in human societies, where exploitation of one human being by another became institutionalized.
The Slavery Mode of Production was the second historical mode of production and the first exploitative one. It emerged after surplus production created class divisions, between the rich (slave masters) and the poor (slaves). Slaves had no rights to own property, including land or tools, and were treated as personal property of the slave masters.
Slavery existed in various parts of the world, including Ancient Egypt, where slaves were used to construct monumental structures like dams and pyramids.
FEATURES OF THE SLAVE MODE OF PRODUCTION.
1. Existence of Two Main Classes.
Society was divided into two antagonistic classes:
The slave masters (owners of the means of production)
The slaves (exploited labor force).
2. Private Ownership of the Means of Production.
All means of production, including land, tools, livestock, and slaves themselves, were privately owned by the slave masters.
3. Low Level of Productive Forces.
Although more advanced than those used during primitive communalism, the tools and methods of production remained relatively simple and limited in efficiency.
4. Existence of Surplus Production.
With better tools and labor exploitation, more goods were produced than were needed for basic survival. However, this surplus was controlled and accumulated by the slave masters.
5. Formation of Political Institutions.
To maintain control and protect their wealth, slave-owning classes developed state apparatus such as:
- Armies
- Prisons
- Police forces
These institutions were used to suppress slave rebellions and enforce laws favoring the ruling class.
6. Class Struggle.
Resistance by slaves was common and took many forms, including:
- Strikes and slowdowns.
- Escapes.
- Open rebellions and revolts.
C: FEUDAL MODE OF PRODUCTION (FEUDALISM).
The term feudalism originates from the German word “feud”, meaning fees, referring to payments made in the form of taxes or services.
Feudalism was the third historical mode of production and the second pre-capitalist system, following slavery. It was based on the exploitation of man by man, where the economy relied on private ownership and renting of land and livestock by the ruling classes (feudal lords or landlords), while the peasants (serfs) worked the land under various forms of rent.
CHARACTERISTICS OF FEUDALISM.
1. Agriculture as the Major Economic Activity.
The economy was predominantly agricultural. The discovery and use of iron technology led to major improvements in tools and productivity, enabling more efficient farming.
2. Payment of Rent to Property Owners.
Peasants paid rent to landowners in different forms:
- Labor Rent: Peasants (serfs) were required to work on the landlord’s land for a number of days (often 3 days per week) without pay.
- Rent in Kind: Payment was made through a portion of agricultural produce such as grain, livestock, or vegetables.
- Money Rent: With the development of trade, peasants began paying rent in the form of money.
3. Exploitation of Man by Man.
Serfs were exploited by feudal lords. The distribution of resources and produce was highly unequal. The ruling class benefited from the labor and surplus of the working class.
4. Limited Freedom for Peasants.
Peasants were subjected to strict rules and lacked mobility. They were often tied to the land and treated as dependents with very few rights.
5. Private Ownership of Means of Production.
The major means of production, land, livestock, mining sites, and homes, were privately owned by the feudal lords. Peasants only had access to these resources through rent agreements.
6. Division of Labor Based on Age and Sex
Social roles were clearly divided:
- Men: Often served in military or performed heavy agricultural work.
- Women: Focused on farming, household duties, and raising children.
7. Existence of Social Classes
Society was divided into:
- Feudal Lords/Landowners – the exploiting class.
- Peasants/Serfs – the exploited class.
8. Emergence of Strong Political Structures.
Feudalism in Africa was associated with the rise of powerful kingdoms and empires, such as:
- Bunyoro, Buganda, Karagwe (in East Africa).
Feudal systems also existed in regions of West Africa, Southern Africa, and North-Eastern Africa
These empires had centralized authority, military organization, and tribute systems.
9. Improved Productive Forces.
The adoption of iron technology enhanced agricultural and military tools.
In African societies, land and livestock (especially cattle) were key resources. Peasants could work on the land freely but were obligated to pay rent, contributing to the feudal system's functioning.
FEUDAL RELATIONS / FORMS OF FEUDALISM IN AFRICA.
Feudalism in Africa took various forms depending on the region and the structure of local societies. The following are the major forms of feudalism that were practiced in different parts of East Africa:
1. Nyarubanja System.
Practiced in Buhaya and Karagwe, this system involved two major classes:
- Batwazi – the rulers/landowners.
- Batwara – the serfs or laborers.
In Buganda, a variation of Nyarubanja was known as:
- Mvunjo and Busulo systems.
The Bataka (chiefs) controlled land while the Bakopi (commoners) provided labor and gave a portion of their produce to the chiefs.
A person who provided labor services was known as Akasamvu, and the tribute paid to the chief was called Obusulu.
In Bunyoro, the kingdom was divided into provinces called Sazas, each ruled by a chief under a feudal structure.
A caste system also developed in parts of East Africa. For example:
Among the Bahima (pastoralists) and Bairu (agriculturalists), the Bahima dominated politically and economically, employing the Bairu to work the land.
This was common in Rwanda, Burundi, and Buhaya.
2. Umwinyi System.
It was found along the coastal regions of East Africa, especially in Zanzibar.
The Wamwinyi (landowners) controlled land and labor and held political and economic power.
Serfs and tenants were granted land to live and work on, in return for labor services and tributes to the Wamwinyi.
Before Arab colonization, Mwinyimkuu was the highest authority in Zanzibar, assisted by:
Sheha in Unguja and Diwani in Pemba.
3. Ubugabire System.
This was practiced among the Tutsi and Hutu in Rwanda and Burundi.
A Tutsi (also called Sebuja) would lend cattle to a Hutu (called Omugabire).
In return, the recipient (Omugabire) and his family were obligated to perform various services for the donor, including:
- Cultivation.
- House-building.
- Labor duties.
This relationship reinforced class divisions and economic dependence.
4. Ntemi System.
It was practiced among the Nyamwezi and Sukuma peoples.
The Mtemi (chief) derived his power from control over land.
He organized his people to open up new lands for cultivation, a process known as Kutema (clearing the bush).
The Mtemi distributed land among his people, reinforcing his political authority and economic dominance.
Power Sharing under Feudalism.
Power sharing under feudalism refers to the practice by which kings or ruling elites distributed governance authority, land, and responsibilities, to subordinate groups within the feudal hierarchy, such as nobles, chiefs, knights, informers, judges, and artisans.
This system created a decentralized structure of power, where loyalty and service were exchanged for protection and control over land.
Elements of Power Sharing in Feudalism:
1. King or Monarch:
He was supreme ruler who owned all the land but distributed it to nobles or lords in exchange for military service and loyalty.
2. Nobles/Lords/Chiefs:
They were granted land (fiefs) by the king. In return, they pledged to support the king militarily and politically. They had power over their lands and the people living on them.
3. Vassals/Knights:
They were subordinates to the landlords. They were given smaller portions of land in return for military service and protection.
4. Serfs/Peasants:
They had no political power but were essential for economic productivity. They worked on the land and provided food and other services to the upper classes.
MERITS OF FEUDALISM.
1. Support for the Poor.
Wealthy landowners provided food during drought and famine periods.
2. Protection of the Weak.
Rulers and landowners offered protection to vulnerable groups.
Example: Among the Rwandans, the Tutsi had the responsibility to protect their Hutu tenants.
3. Access to Land for the Poor.
Peasants were given land to cultivate even if they did not own it.
4. Social Order and Defined Roles.
The society was clearly stratified; each class understood its role and duties.
5. Peace and Stability.
The ruling class maintained law and order, resulting in relative peace within the state.
DEMERITS OF FEUDALISM.
1. Exploitation of Labor.
The poor were forced to work without fair compensation for the benefit of the landowners.
2. Unequal Land Ownership.
Only a small elite class owned land, leaving the majority without property rights.
3. Social Inequality.
A wide gap existed between the rich and the poor, reinforcing class divisions.
4. Forced Military Service.
Peasants were sometimes compelled to fight in wars for their feudal lords, risking their lives without benefit.
5. Inter-Community Warfare.
Frequent conflicts arose as feudal lords fought to expand their territories and acquire more serfs.
Reflelction questions:
How did feudalism simplify leadership across the world?
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