How African Societies Preserved Their History Before the Introduction of Writing
How did African societies remember their kings, wars, migrations, traditions and achievements before the introduction of written records?
For many years, some accounts of African history concentrated heavily on written documents produced by European travellers, missionaries and colonial administrators.
This sometimes created a misleading impression that African societies had little or no history before European contact.
However, the absence of widespread writing did not mean the absence of historical knowledge. Across Africa, communities developed different methods of preserving and transmitting information about their past.
These included oral traditions, genealogies, songs, cultural practices, artistic expressions, monuments and other forms of material evidence.
Some communities also had their own systems of writing before the introduction of colonial rule. Therefore, it is important not to assume that all African societies were non-literate.
1. Oral Traditions: Passing History from One Generation to Another
Oral tradition was one of the most important methods through which many African societies preserved historical knowledge.
It involved transmitting information verbally from older generations to younger generations through stories, legends, proverbs, speeches, songs and traditional narratives.
In communities where written records were limited, elders, poets, storytellers and other specialised custodians played important roles in preserving knowledge about ancestral origins, migration, wars, leadership and cultural practices.
For example, an elder could explain how a community experienced a particular war, why its people moved to another region, or how a traditional institution developed.
Rwanda: Royal historians and the history of kings
In the former Kingdom of Rwanda, specialised custodians preserved royal traditions through memorised accounts, poems and historical narratives.
For example, the abacurabwenge were responsible for memorising and reciting the royal genealogy, known as ubucurabwenge. Court poets called abasizi composed dynastic poems known as ibisigo, which praised kings and recorded aspects of their reigns.
Another important tradition was ubwiru, the body of royal ritual knowledge preserved by specialists known as abiru.
These traditions helped preserve information about Rwanda's monarchy, royal ceremonies, political institutions and the deeds attributed to different kings.
Somalia: Poetry as a record of political struggles
Among Somali communities, poetry was an important means of communicating political opinions, recording events and mobilising public support.
A notable example is the poetry of Sayyid Maxamed Cabdulle Xasan, the leader of the Dervish movement, which fought against British, Italian and Ethiopian forces in the early twentieth century.
His poems communicated political messages, criticised opponents, encouraged resistance and reflected the conflicts of his time.
Historians can therefore examine Somali oral poetry to understand political attitudes, resistance movements and the historical experiences of communities during colonial expansion.
The Borana Oromo of Ethiopia: Oral chronicles and community history
Among the Borana Oromo of southern Ethiopia, historical knowledge was preserved through oral chronicles and specialised forms of historical narration.
Research by Chikage Oba-Smidt, published in The Oral Chronicle of the Boorana in Southern Ethiopia (2016), examines how the Borana Oromo constructed and transmitted historical knowledge.
These oral accounts preserve community memories, explanations of past events and understandings of social change.
The example demonstrates how historians can use oral chronicles to investigate how a community remembers its past, including events that may not have been recorded in written documents.
When studying the history of an African community, a historian may interview elders, listen to traditional poems, collect historical narratives and examine stories about past events.
For example, a researcher investigating the Dervish movement in Somalia could examine the poems of Sayyid Maxamed Cabdulle Xasan and compare their accounts with colonial correspondence and other historical records.
This comparison can help reveal information about the movement's political objectives, conflicts and public support.
Oral traditions were therefore not simply forms of entertainment. They were important instruments of historical preservation and communication.
However, historians must examine oral accounts critically because information may change through repetition, exaggeration, omission or differences in interpretation. Some traditions may also reflect the political interests of the people who preserved them.
Genealogy refers to the study and preservation of family descent and relationships between successive generations. In many African societies, genealogical knowledge was transmitted orally through family elders, traditional leaders, praise poetry and community histories.
Before written records became widespread, elders memorised the names of ancestors, their descendants, marriages and important achievements. This information helped younger generations understand their origins and relationships with other families.
Genealogies were particularly important in societies where political leadership, inheritance, land rights and social responsibilities were connected to ancestry.
The following examples demonstrate how different African societies used genealogies to preserve their histories.
Among the Zulu of South Africa, royal genealogies helped preserve the history of the ruling family and the succession of kings.
For example, Shaka Zulu was the son of Senzangakhona, a chief of the Zulu clan, and Nandi. Following Senzangakhona's death, Shaka became ruler and established the Zulu kingdom as a major political power in Southern Africa.
After Shaka's death in 1828, his half-brother Dingane succeeded him. Another half-brother, Mpande, later became king, followed by Mpande's son Cetshwayo.
This royal lineage helped preserve knowledge about family relationships, political succession and the development of the Zulu kingdom.
Practical example: A historian investigating the origins of the Zulu monarchy can trace the relationship between Senzangakhona, Shaka, Dingane, Mpande and Cetshwayo. This helps establish how leadership passed between members of the royal family and how political authority was maintained.
b) The Baganda of Uganda: Clan Genealogies and Ancestral Identity
Among the Baganda of Uganda, clans are known as ebika (singular: ekika). They have historically played an important role in organising society and preserving ancestral identity.
The Baganda have more than fifty clans, each with its own traditions, leadership structures and ancestral histories.
Examples include:
- Lugave clan: Associated with the pangolin.
- Ffumbe clan: Associated with the civet cat.
- Ngeye clan: Associated with the colobus monkey.
- Mmamba clan: Associated with the lungfish.
Members of these clans traditionally identified themselves through paternal descent and maintained knowledge about their ancestral origins, clan leaders and customary responsibilities.
Clan histories were transmitted through oral accounts, family relationships, traditional symbols and the authority of clan elders.
Practical example: A person belonging to the Lugave clan could identify their clan affiliation through their father's lineage and learn about the clan's traditions, leadership and ancestral identity from older family members.
These traditions helped maintain social relationships and preserve knowledge about the organisation of Buganda society.
Among the Akan of Ghana, particularly the Asante, genealogy traditionally followed the maternal line.
This system is called matrilineal descent, meaning that children inherit membership in their mother's lineage or clan rather than their father's.
The Akan have several major matrilineal clans, including:
- Oyoko
- Bretuo
- Aduana
- Asakyiri
- Asona
- Ekuona
- Agona
- Asenie
The Oyoko clan is particularly important in Asante political history because the Asante royal dynasty belonged to this clan.
For example, Osei Tutu I, one of the founders of the Asante Empire, belonged to the Oyoko clan. His royal successor, Opoku Ware I, also came from the same royal lineage.
Genealogical knowledge was important in determining eligibility for political leadership and maintaining the legitimacy of the royal institution.
Practical example: When an Asante king died, the selection of a successor was guided by matrilineal descent and customary rules. The royal family and kingmakers considered eligible candidates from the appropriate maternal lineage.
This demonstrates how genealogy could influence political succession and the continuity of African kingdoms.
d) The Wolof of Senegal: Genealogy as a Historical Record
Among the Wolof of Senegal, genealogies were important in preserving information about family descent, ancestral relationships and social status.
A particularly interesting academic study was conducted by anthropologist Judith T. Irvine in 1978, titled When Is Genealogy History? Wolof Genealogies in Comparative Perspective.
The study examined how Wolof communities constructed and transmitted genealogies and why some genealogical traditions preserved historical information more accurately than others.
Irvine explained that Wolof genealogies could provide relatively reliable accounts of the past because of the social conditions under which genealogical knowledge was maintained.
For example, genealogical specialists could preserve information about relationships between generations, while social institutions and established traditions helped regulate how this knowledge was transmitted.
Practical example: A historian investigating the history of a Wolof family or community can compare genealogical accounts to identify ancestral relationships and examine how families were connected to wider social and political institutions.
This example demonstrates that genealogies can serve as historical sources, although their accuracy depends on how information was collected, maintained and transmitted.
3. Traditional Songs and Poetry: Remembering Historical Events
Songs and poetry provided another way of preserving historical experiences.
African communities used music and poetic performances to communicate information about wars, migrations, heroic individuals, political leadership and important social events.
Some songs celebrated the achievements of warriors and leaders, while others remembered suffering, resistance, victories and defeats.
In West Africa, griots used praise-songs to preserve the reputations and achievements of rulers and important historical personalities.
Such performances helped communities remember individuals and events that had influenced their societies.
Practical example: A traditional song praising a famous warrior may contain references to a particular battle, the enemy faced, the weapons used and the individual's contribution to victory. Historians can investigate these references alongside other available evidence.
Songs could also communicate political criticism and preserve collective memories of difficult periods.
However, not every traditional song should be treated as a literal historical account. Some contain symbolism, artistic exaggeration and religious elements that require careful interpretation.
Cultural practices, rituals and ceremonies played an important role in preserving historical memories among African societies. Through repeated performances, ancestral commemorations, traditional songs and community gatherings, people transmitted knowledge about their origins, ancestors, beliefs and social institutions to younger generations.
Unlike written records, these traditions often preserved historical knowledge through religious practices and social activities. The following examples demonstrate how different African communities maintained connections with their past.
Among communities in Benin and neighbouring parts of West Africa, Vodun (also written as Vodún) has historically been an important religious and cultural institution.
Vodun involves beliefs in deities, spiritual forces and ancestors. Ancestors occupy an important position because they are traditionally believed to influence the lives of their descendants through blessings or misfortune.
For example, some families conduct ceremonies to honour deceased relatives and maintain relationships between the living and their ancestors. These ceremonies may involve offerings, prayers and other ritual activities.
Through such practices, younger generations learn about their ancestors, family religious traditions and the spiritual beliefs that have shaped their communities.
Vodun therefore provides an example of how religious practices can preserve ancestral identity and cultural memory across generations.
b) Oríkì Among the Yoruba of West Africa
Among the Yoruba people of Nigeria and neighbouring areas, Oríkì is a traditional form of oral praise poetry used to celebrate individuals, families, lineages, towns and deities.
Unlike ordinary praise, Oríkì can contain historical information about family origins, ancestral achievements, leadership and important events.
For example, a family praise poem may recall an ancestor who established a settlement, demonstrated bravery during warfare or became an influential community leader. When such poetry is recited during family gatherings and ceremonies, younger generations learn about the achievements and identity of their ancestors.
Oríkì is therefore valuable not only as a cultural expression but also as a source of historical information.
Historian Bolanle Awe demonstrated the importance of Yoruba praise poetry in reconstructing the history of Yoruba communities in her 1974 study, Praise Poems as Historical Data: The Example of the Yoruba Oríkì.
Among the Chagga of Mount Kilimanjaro in northern Tanzania, ancestral traditions have historically formed an important part of family and kinship relationships.
Anthropologist Päivi Hasu, in her 2009 study For Ancestors and God: Rituals of Sacrifice among the Chagga of Tanzania, examined how ancestral veneration and sacrificial practices remained significant among Chagga kin groups despite more than a century of Christian influence.
One interesting example concerns Chagga people who have migrated away from their ancestral homes but return during Christmas to commemorate their ancestors.
These commemorations demonstrate how family members maintain connections with their ancestral lands and preserve the importance of earlier generations.
Such practices also provide opportunities for younger family members to learn about their ancestry, family relationships and customary traditions.
This example demonstrates how ancestral ceremonies can help preserve historical identity even when communities experience religious and social changes.
d) Maasai Rites of Passage in East Africa
Among the Maasai of Tanzania and Kenya, traditional rites of passage have helped transmit cultural knowledge, social responsibilities and community identity from one generation to another.
Three important ceremonies are Enkipaata, Eunoto and Olng'esherr.
- Enkipaata: Introduces boys to the initiation process and prepares them for the next stage of life.
- Eunoto: Marks an important transition for young warriors, including the shaving of their hair as they move towards adulthood.
- Olng'esherr: Marks the end of the warrior stage and the beginning of elderhood.
These ceremonies involve more than physical transitions. They provide opportunities for transmitting traditional knowledge about livestock keeping, conflict management, legends, customs and community responsibilities.
For example, during the transition from warriorhood to elderhood, younger members learn about their changing responsibilities within society and the importance of respecting senior generations.
UNESCO recognises these three interconnected rites as important elements of Maasai intangible cultural heritage.
They demonstrate how ceremonies can preserve knowledge about social organisation and the responsibilities associated with different stages of life.
5. Rock Paintings and Artistic Expressions
Before modern recording technologies, people used artistic expressions to represent aspects of their lives and surroundings.
Rock paintings, engravings, pottery decorations and other forms of traditional art can provide important information about the activities, beliefs and environments of earlier communities.
A particularly important example is the Kondoa Rock-Art Sites in Tanzania.
These sites are located in Central Tanzania. They contain numerous rock shelters decorated with paintings representing human figures, animals and other images.
According to UNESCO, the paintings provide evidence of the changing ways of life of communities in the area, including transitions from hunter-gatherer societies to agro-pastoralist communities.
The sites were inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2006.
Some of these shelters also maintain connections with local communities through traditional rituals and cultural practices.
Practical example: When historians and archaeologists examine paintings showing animals, human figures and hunting activities, they can investigate how earlier communities interacted with their environment and how their economic activities may have changed over time.
However, the exact meaning of individual paintings cannot always be established with certainty. Their interpretation requires archaeological, environmental and cultural evidence.
6. Monuments, Buildings and Archaeological Remains
Physical structures and archaeological remains provide another important source of information about African history.
Ancient settlements, stone buildings, pottery, iron tools, graves, coins and other objects preserve evidence of how earlier societies lived and organised themselves.
One important example is Great Zimbabwe, located in present-day Zimbabwe.
The site contains impressive stone structures constructed without modern building materials. Its remains provide evidence of advanced construction skills, political organisation and economic activities.
Archaeological research has also established connections between Great Zimbabwe and wider Indian Ocean trading networks.
Through the study of pottery, imported objects and other archaeological materials, historians can investigate trade relationships and the development of the society.
Practical example: If archaeologists discover imported pottery or other foreign objects at an ancient settlement, they can investigate the community's connections with distant trading partners.
Similarly, the remains of defensive walls may provide information about settlement organisation, construction techniques and the possible importance of particular locations.
These discoveries demonstrate that African societies developed complex political, economic and technological systems long before colonial rule.
Language is another important source of historical information. African societies preserved aspects of their past through personal names, clan names, geographical names and words passed from one generation to another.
Names were not always chosen simply because they sounded attractive. In many communities, they reflected family experiences, circumstances surrounding birth, ancestral relationships, occupations and important events.
The following examples demonstrate how names and language can help historians investigate African history.
a) Personal and Clan Names Among the Rombo-Chagga of Tanzania
Among the Rombo-Chagga of Kilimanjaro, personal and clan names provide valuable information about family experiences, social relationships and traditional beliefs.
A particularly useful study is Historicity of Personal Names in Tanzania: The Case of the Names in the Rombo-Chagga Community in Kilimanjaro, published by Amani Lusekelo and Victor Mtenga in 2020.
The researchers documented several names and their meanings, including:
- Mkenda: Associated with being born during unlucky days.
- Ndekir'yo: Meaning "I am cured", reflecting circumstances surrounding the family's experience of illness or recovery.
- Ndesambur'yo: Meaning "I am the selected one".
- Kiringa (Kringa): Meaning "protector of the family".
- Kaanasia: Meaning "be happy", associated with a child whose birth brought happiness to a family that had experienced difficulties having children.
- Monyiachi: Meaning "only God knows", associated with families that had experienced difficulties having children.
These examples demonstrate how personal names could preserve memories of family experiences and traditional beliefs.
The researchers also identified clan names such as Lyimo, Mtui, Mrema, Shao, Kimaro, Massawe and Tarimo.
These names are particularly important because clan identities can help researchers investigate kinship relationships and historical connections among Chagga communities.
For example, when researchers compare clan names across different Chagga communities, they can investigate possible relationships between families and the historical development of those communities.
The study demonstrates that names can serve as historical evidence rather than simply identifying individuals.
Geographical names can also preserve information about the history of a community.
Among the Chagga, names associated with mountains and geographical features provide examples of how language reflects the environment and cultural understanding of a particular area.
Consider the following examples:
- Kipoo (Kibo): The Kichagga name for one of the major peaks of Mount Kilimanjaro. It is explained in linguistic literature as referring to a spotted appearance.
- Kimawenze (Mawenzi): Associated with the jagged or notched appearance of the mountain's summit.
These names demonstrate how geographical features were described and identified through local languages.
Importantly, the name Kilimanjaro itself has a debated linguistic origin. Historians should therefore avoid presenting one popular explanation as an established fact.
Among the Yoruba of Nigeria, Oríkì is a form of traditional praise poetry associated with individuals, families, lineages, towns and communities.
These poems sometimes contain references to ancestors, family achievements, historical events and places of origin.
For example, a family Oríkì may remember an ancestor who was a successful warrior, established a settlement or became an influential leader.
When such praise poetry is recited during family gatherings and ceremonies, younger generations learn about their ancestral identities and achievements.
Oríkì therefore preserves historical information through language and performance.
d) Bantu Languages and Historical Connections Between African Communities
Comparing African languages also helps historians and linguists investigate relationships between communities.
For example, Kiswahili, Kichagga, Zulu and many other languages belong to the wider Bantu language family.
These languages share certain vocabulary and grammatical structures inherited from earlier linguistic ancestors.
By comparing words and their historical development, linguists can reconstruct earlier forms of languages and investigate how Bantu-speaking populations spread across different parts of Africa.
For instance, comparative linguistic research identifies related forms such as:
| Language | Word | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| Kiswahili | -pa | Give |
| Zulu | -pha | Give |
| Kikongo | -va | Give |
| Simakonde | -pha | Give |
These similarities provide evidence of historical linguistic relationships.
They also demonstrate how language can preserve information about connections between populations even when written records are unavailable.
8. How Historians Combine These Methods to Reconstruct African History
Although these methods helped preserve historical knowledge, no single source can provide a complete account of the past.
Historians therefore use different sources together to establish more reliable historical explanations.
For example, when investigating the migration of a particular African community, a historian may:
1. Interview elders about the community's traditional migration accounts.
2. Examine genealogies to identify remembered ancestors and successive generations.
3. Study traditional songs containing references to migration and settlement.
4. Investigate archaeological remains in areas associated with the migration.
5. Compare linguistic evidence with that of neighbouring communities.
6. Examine written records, where available, to establish additional information.
Comparing different sources helps historians identify agreements, disagreements and possible weaknesses in individual accounts.
This approach is particularly important because oral traditions may preserve valuable memories while also containing elements that have changed over generations.
The combination of oral history, archaeology, linguistics, environmental evidence and written records provides a broader understanding of Africa's past.
African societies developed different ways of preserving their history before written records became widespread in many communities.
Through oral traditions, genealogies, songs, ceremonies, artistic expressions, monuments and language, generations transmitted knowledge about their ancestors, political institutions, economic activities and cultural identities.
References and Further Reading
1. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. "Kondoa Rock-Art Sites".
2. UNESCO. "Working towards an African Renaissance through Culture and History".
3. British Museum. "African Rock Art: Tanzania".
4. Schmidt, P. R. and Walz, J. R. "Re-Representing African Pasts through Historical Archaeology"
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